Com 10 Final practice questions/terms

content medium

 specific content function; you are receiving information that you want

* Ex. Newspapers 
* Ex. Using weather channel to pick out your outfit 

Content function

* A function based on what the medium conveys
* Ex. the weather channel tells us what to wear on a given day 

Medium function

* A function based on what the medium conveys
* Ex. the weather channel tells us what to wear on a given day 

Manifest function

* Obvious , intended, and on the surface functions
* Couple listens to radio to be informed

Latent function

* Unintended, hidden or beneath the surface functions
* Ex. The couple listens to the radio to avoid arguing with one another

6 Societal functions of media

1. Status conferral: if something makes the news, those issues are important; you should pay attention


1. Media can shape the agenda
2. Passing on societies norms, values, and traditions; enforcement


1. We learn American values from the mass media
2. Enforcement: learning what happens if you disobey
3. Narcotizing: narcotics distort your senses


1. Negative function/dysfunction
2. Media makes us apathetic; clutters our brains/dopes us up


1. We like to focus on superficiality; we don’t want to feel/think
2. Gets people to passively scroll/use media
3. Media can negatively affect our ambitions/thought-process
4. Services political system


1. We learn about our government through mass media


1. Both nationally and globally; can communicate message internationally
5. Media enforces community and social cohesion


1. We all have the same baseline knowledge
2. Connects us to other people; happens most dramatically in times of crisis
6. Services the economy


1. Capitalism: Advertising supports economy and the media

8 Individual functions of media

1. Helps guide behavior
2. Helps guide our understanding
3. Helps us form our self-concepts
4. Professional tool: helping you with a job or profession
5. Facilitates social interaction
6. Substitute for interaction
7. Emotional release
8. Ritualizing our lives

5 storage issues of media content

1. Longevity: how long will it last? 


1. Longevity sacrificed for portability 


1. Ex. Most silent films have been lost 
2. Capacity: how much content can be stored? 


1. Technology has allowed us to store a lot of content in a small space 
2. Miniaturization of content 
3. Portability: how easily can we move it from one place to another?


1. Portability can be tied to capacity 
4. Accessibility: how easily can you access the content?


1. Some media can be lost because we don’t have the tools to access it anymore 


1. Ex. Cassette tapes 
2. Modern technology provides more access than ever before 
5. Reproducibility: how easily/accurately can you duplicate the content? 

Name one way the advent of sound changed the movie industry.

It can immerse an audience in a unique world, help tell the story and move the storyline along. Sound can also help create emotion and set the tone of the film. A film's sound is just as important as the visuals on screen.

What is the “mirror analogy” regarding selection in the news?

* the news mirrors reality by reflecting the world and its events 
* Selection process is intuitive

Axioms of interpersonal communication

1. Communication can be intentional or unintentional
2. All behavior has the potential to communicate
3. Communication is irreversible and unrepeatable

Social and political consequences of storage

\-civilization is the result of laws and shared information

\-we now have widespread trade of online information

\-your online information isn’t private; everyone has access to it

\-things you do online don’t go away; example of tweets coming back to haunt people

\-anyone has the right to film you; example of George Floyd murder

Describe and give an example of the status conferral function of the mass media.

the status-conferral function of the media is the idea that being reported on by the mass media gives a movement, situation, or person a certain status

\-ex. If something makes the news, it’s important; you should pay attention

Cite one way in which the blockbuster trend changed the American movie aesthetic

\-blockbuster films were very popular; people would go see the movie multiple times

\-investing a lot of money in a few movies or shows in hope for a hit is the strategy the movie industry follows.

Comprehend and explain the role of each of the basic mass media (books, magazines, newspapers, music, film, radio, television, the internet and digital media) and how they function in and impact the contemporary world

\-Magazines: first medium to reach a national audience on a regular basis

\-newspapers: first to become a true mass medium; became available to large numbers of people on a regular basis

\-radio: the most familiar and far-reaching mass communication medium in the world

\-television: still the dominant medium for majority of Americans

\-music: industry has the highest rate of turnover and talent; it is constantly changing; has something to offer to everyone; personalization

Content versus medium

general nature of the medium vs the conditions of its use

\-ex. Movie theaters—content is largely irrelevant; viewers come for the experience; medium function more important

Manifest versus latent

* Manifest: related to news/current events; obvious, intended 
* Latent: subconscious, hidden messages; can be unintended

Vivid media memories

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* tangible memories that last a lifetime 

persistence of vision

* allows the eye to process as a series 
* Motion pictures are series of multiple images played in succession 

pictorial realism

(1890s) realistic pictures showing movement 

* Quite short; usually viewed in an arcade 

Sustained narrative

* Early 1900s: we saw first feature length film, first directors

Evolution of industry as a result of new technology

Feature-length film, film stars, distinguished directors, film palaces, Hollywood

Film as a business

Film industry was taken over by non Hollywood interests; mostly conglomerates

\#1 goal was to make a profit

Nickelodeons

Early motion-picture theater, so named because admission typically cost a nickel. Nickelodeons offered continuous showings of one- and two-reel films, lasting from 15 minutes to one hour and accompanied by a piano.

MPPC fight

\-The MPPC ended the domination of foreign films on US screens, standardized the manner in which films were distributed and exhibited within the US, and improved the quality of US motion pictures by internal competition. But it also discouraged its members' entry into feature film production, and the use of outside financing, both to its members' eventual detriment.

\-Many independent filmmakers, who controlled from one-quarter to one-third of the domestic marketplace, responded to the creation of the MPPC by moving their operations to Hollywood, whose distance from Edison's home base of New Jersey made it more difficult for the MPPC to enforce its patents.

Golden Age Of film

began during the Great Depression in the late 1920s and continued throughout the early 1960s; when the cinema experienced great advancement in picture quality and sound.

Post-World War II decline Of film

1. Television
2. Red scare
3. Paramount Case
4. Foreign film

Response to decline in film

* Industry responded frantically 
* Improvements to technology; sound and color 
* Better theaters 
* Don’t cooperate with the enemy—TV industry 
* 3D movies 
* Adding aromas to theaters 
* Willing to try anything to get people interested again

Non-Hollywood business interests

* Studios relied on large-scale movies that could interest everyone 
* Spectacle films 
* There were successful films at the time, but there were also a lot of expensive failures 
* Takeover of Hollywood by non-Hollywood interests; mostly conglomerates 

new American cinema (1960s-early 1970s)

* As society changes, film changes
* Freedom of expression
* Independent filmmakers
* Films became more experimental
* No longer had to appeal to everyone
* More sophisticated audiences
* More social commentary films

youth influence on film

* The young went to the movies the most 
* Older folks more sedentary 
* Ages 16-30 most prominent demographic 
* Disaster films became popular 
* Teens most important demographic; they buy more concessions; movies sometimes aimed at teens are cheaper to produce; teens more likely to see the same movie twice 

Blockbusters

* Mid-1970s: Blockbuster Era 
* Blockbuster films make a lot of money 
* Ex. Star Wars/Jaws 
* People saw blockbuster movies multiple times 

change in film aesthetics

* Changes in film aesthetic: more about the sensory experience
* Big, star-studded, special effects films
* Aired in the summers (most turnout)
* Movies scripts were focused on characters that would be played by actors; not the other way around (movies based on actors)

Sequels, remakes, prequels, reboots, films based on: TV shows, comic books, video games, books, games and toys

* Obsessive use of sequels beginning in the 1970s 
* 90s-21st century: sequels perform better
* Remakes 
* Making the same film but in a new era/different cast 
* Prequels 
* What happened before the story started 
* Reboots 
* Re-telling the story in a new way; with a new take 
* Remake vs reboot 
* Reboot usually refers to a series of films 
* Disregards previous continuity and starts from a fresh perspective 
* Re-invigorate a stale franchise 
* Remakes are a re-telling of a film NOT in a series 
* Films based on other Media 
* Television shows, video games, books, comics, etc. 
* easier when a fan base is already established
* Nostalgia factor
* Became virtually impossible to create idiosyncratic films in Hollywood industry 

Big budgets In the industry

* Today, the avg. Hollywood film costs 100 million dollars to produce 
* Spend more, make more
* Concern with money became important as non-film companies took over the industry 

Lowest-common-denominator (LCD)

* The more a movie costs, the more it has to appeal to the LCD
* Less likely to make any big claims; these movies aren’t supposed to make you think critically

Actors

* Marketing is important: celebrities are marketable; they drive tickets for box offices
* Have lots of money and power
* Open up a movie strong with a big star so its a good first weekend
* Foreign markets—make 70% of profit outside US
* Stories based on characters (rather than stars)
* Start with character and then find the actor
* CB zero (cash break zero)—stars get less upfront and get share of profit after studio breaks even

Movie release strategies

(Jaws) set new precedents for the industry: multi-theater release at the same time; the "summer blockbuster" (summer was largely seen as off-season to that point); and increased budgets for advertising and marketing of films.

Hollywood has designated summer as a movie season in itself, with blockbusters hitting the big screen every year in June, July, and August. The release of Jaws changed how Hollywood marketed films and introduced the idea of a universal opening weekend.

agents

1920s, agents became a part of the scene.

OG Actors weren’t informed enough to deal with those companies, so the idea of having an advocate, someone who could represent their interests, was suddenly very attractive—and necessary.

Agents sold themselves to actors by promising to open those sturdy studio gates. These men knew the executives and producers. They could make life a lot easier (and more profitable) for actors.

Independent films

* Hollywood has never been focused on art; Hollywood films made no major claims; it was just a form of entertainment 
* Filmmakers flocked to metropolitan areas, became more affluent; now movies considered art form 
* Artists came to LA
* Indie films were made outside of Hollywood industry; they cost less, used less renowned celebrities, and appealed to more educated audiences

Specialty divisions

* Studios create special divisions for independent filmmakers. 

Hollywood and independent cinema continued to converge, especially when the major entertainment conglomerates started introducing specialty film divisions to control more effectively the increasingly lucrative independent film market.

These divisions, together with other well-capitalized companies, often invested huge funds in the production and marketing of their films, which enabled them to lure major stars.

In turn, a number of Hollywood stars, frequently through their own film production companies, used this opportunity to pursue passion projects that allowed them to stretch their acting skills, take artistic risks, and be taken more seriously by critics and peers.

Foreign films/documentaries

* Foreign films compete with American films because they appeal to the same inter(national) audiences 
* Significant overlap 

cineplex

* Theaters with more than one screen 
* Megaplex: theaters with 20 or more screens 
* Mostly chain-owned 

drive-ins

\-Popularity of the drive-in spiked after World War II and reached its heyday in the late 1950s to mid-60s, with some 5,000 theaters across the country. Drive-ins became an icon of American culture, and a typical weekend destination not just for parents and children but also for teenage couples seeking some privacy.

\-drive-in movies have lost popularity over time but made a comeback during covid.

Modern theaters

* People encouraged to spend lots of time at the movies 
* More comfortable* Attached to other chains; all-in-one experience 

film’s relationship with television

* Post-WWII boom of TV
* Learned to cooperate 
* You can license your movies and sell them to TV providers 
* Made-for-TV movies 
* New ways to make money 

Video—sold to video rental stores

* When video came out, industry was afraid
* New revenue streams
* Selling/renting copies for distribution for stores; Blockbuster rental fees

Direct-to-video

the release of a film, television series, short or special to the public immediately on home video formats rather than an initial theatrical release or television premiere.

* Initially only bad films/sequels to animation films 
* Over time, studies make more profit on video than box offices 
* Decreasing amount of money made from box office; other ways

Digital downloads

acquire a single copy of the film on digital device such as a personal computer, smartphone, tablet computer, or digital media player, and view it on those devices without requiring access to the physical media.

streaming

a method of __transmitting__ or receiving data (especially video and audio material) over a computer network as a steady, continuous flow, allowing playback to start while the rest of the data is still being received.

Death of theaters?

Suman says no. People still enjoy going to movies; communal experience; absence of distraction; novelty of experience 

Merchandizing and many ways to make $

The sale of goods related to a movie can generate a lot of income. There are a lot of movies that have spurred on merchandise sales. Sometimes, the presale of merchandising rights can contribute to the budget of the movie's production. Merchandising also plays a critical role when it comes to the marketing of a film.

Studios today

* Consolidation of movie industry by major producers
* Most production work done by 100s of smaller independent companies
* Studios don’t control actors anymore; actors are free agents 
* studios get the money; central form of organization

Nature of film—persuasive potential

Films have the potential to create a strong perspective that is presenting a specific point of view and trying to convince the viewer of something.

However, most filmmakers don’t attempt to teach the viewer something new; their goal is to be entertaining

Cliches

purposefully unoriginal, that it is purposefully tired and boring, and predictable.

regulation of film industry

\-**1915** In *Mutual Film Corporation v. Industrial Commission of Ohio*, the Supreme Court holds that movies are not protected by the First Amendment. The ruling allows state and local boards to continue censoring films.

**-1922** The Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America (MPPDA), later to become the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) is formed, led by Former Postmaster General William H. Hays.

**-1956** MPAA initiates a review of the Production Code, which results in loosening its prohibitions on the portrayal of drug use, abortion, miscegenation, prostitution, and abortion. The revised code added a prohibition on blasphemy and ridiculing the clergy.

**-1968** MPAA institutes a nationwide system of voluntary ratings based on the viewer's age, in response to continuing objections to the Production Code, and to court rulings indicating that different First Amendment standards apply to adults and minors. The original ratings are G for General Audiences, M for Mature Audiences, R for 16 and above, unless accompanied by a parent or guardian, and X, under 16 not admitted.

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1915 Supreme Court decision

Later overruled, this decision held that motion pictures are business rather than art and are not subject to First Amendment protections.

miracle case

the Court determined that free speech protection equally applied to motion pictures. With its ruling in the Burstyn case, which is often referred to as The Miracle Decision, the Supreme Court reversed earlier rulings and ended decades of censorship in American cinemas.

Hayes office and code

The Hays Code was this self-imposed industry set of guidelines for all the motion pictures that were released between 1934 and 1968,” says O'Brien. “The code prohibited profanity, suggestive nudity, graphic or realistic violence, sexual persuasions and rape.

MPAA

the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) from 1945 until September 2019, its original goal was to ensure the viability of the American film industry.

The MPA also runs the voluntary film rating system and has been involved in American film regulation and censorship since the 1920s. The censorship efforts conducted by the MPAA and the ways in which they rate films have been the subject of much controversy over the years

Digital: nature and distribution

the delivery or distribution of digital media content such as audio, video, e-books, video games, and other software.

* Net downloads: saving to your computer/digital download

internet’s effects on film

interest in going to movie theaters has been decreasing as a direct effect of the growing popularity of major streaming services, such as Netflix and Amazon Prime. This reduces the number of people who go to movie theaters to see the latest films and damages the industry irrevocably.

* Industry waits to make streaming available after a few months 
* They still want us to go to the movies 


* Day & Date Release: Netflix; during pandemic, many movies went straight to streaming 
* Most people stream the movies they watch 

Film vs TV

By the 1960s, more than half of all American homes contained television sets, and TV had done away with nearly everything that made the major motion picture studios so great. Tighter belts meant movie studios took fewer creative risks and invested less money in quality films. Movie palaces fell into disrepair

* Studios relied on large-scale movies that could interest everyone 
* Spectacle films 
* There were successful films at the time, but there were also a lot of expensive failures 
* Takeover of Hollywood by non-Hollywood interests; mostly conglomerates 

Media support systems

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1. Audience supported
2. Advertiser supported
3. Combination of 1 & 2
4. Subsidized

How are audiences measured?

Audience measurement is typically further segmented by media markets, which are defined by the size of a metropolitan area. In linear TV advertising, gross rating points (GRPs) or target rating points (TRPs) are the standard unit of measurement.

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* Nielsen Company: delivers data on ratings/shares; how many people watch a certain show
* People meter: every individual in a household has their own button
* Measures what you watch
* Avg. # of people watching from start-to-finish
* 42,500 people participating
* Calculating minute-by-minute viewing

Nielsen ratings

an estimate of the total number of viewers for a particular television program, expressed as a percentage of the total number of viewers whose television sets are on at the time and based on a monitoring of the sets of a preselected sample of viewers.

People meter

an electronic device used to record the television viewing habits of a household so that the information obtained can be used to __compile__ ratings.

rating

(number of viewers/total universe of potential viewers)

Share

number of viewers/total number of TV watchers at a given time

Portable people meter

\-device you wear; tracks all the TV you consume at home and away 

also known as the Nielsen Meter, was a system developed by Arbitron (now Nielsen Audio) to measure how many people are exposed, or listening to individual radio stations and television stations. This also includes cable television.

sweeps

time periods when television stations/networks typically schedule programming designed to attract a larger than usual audience. Why? Sweep period programming is designed to attract larger audiences who in turn are exposed to advertising commercial messages.

DVR viewing

(Digital Video Recorder) Also known as a "personal video recorder" (PVR) or "hard disk recorder," a DVR is a consumer device that allows the viewer to pause and rewind any broadcast, cable or satellite TV program as well as record and play back selected programs

C3 vs C7

C3, C7 (linear viewership within the three or seven days, respectively).

Audience composition (demographics)

* Characteristics/demographics of viewers 
* Geography important: denser the environment, more money you can make 
* Age important: ages 18-49 most important demographic; advertisers pay the most to target these groups 
* Sex important: males vs females 
* Income important 

news- agenda setting

* Process of selection: news media decides what’s important to cover; determines what we think about 
* The media sets the agenda—how do they select the news? 
* Agenda setting 

news-gatekeepers

* those involved with selection process of news 
* Ex. Cameraman, editor, producer
* Bias: how do you choose and why? 

news-mirror analogy

* the news mirrors reality by reflecting the world and its events 
* Selection process is intuitive; not satisfying 

5 factors influencing the news

1. News people
a. Political bias
b. Subcultural bias
2. Organizational factors
a. Beat system
b. Pack journalism
c. Regularized news
d. Deadlines
3. Technology
4. Factors within the story
a. Events
b. Timeliness
c. Drama
d. Conflict
e. Proximity
f. Personalization
g. Good film
5. Audience
a. Different media/different coverage
b. Quest for large ones for profit and prestige
c. Role of the internet

Changing definition of news

Algorithms

Individual pieces

Filter bubbles/personalized news

Change in consumption patterns

Traditional orgs ceding power

Centralization

New gatekeepers

Live streaming-more stories more quickly from more people

Audiences’ increasing role in creating and passing on news

Fake news

1. misinformation 


1. A lot of what we see online is fake 
2. People accuse content they don’t like as fake news 

13 issues of ethics in the mass media

1. Privacy
2. Basic obligations to fellow human beings
3. Conflict of interest
4. Trials and court cases
5. Gifts and payola
6. Reporting on crime
7. Stereotypes (including whitewashing, racial erasure, flower vases)
8. Accuracy of information
9. Undercover reporting
10. Checkbook journalism
11. Reporting on risks
12. War photos
13. Taste

De-regulation

* Telecom act of 1996 
* There used to be strict laws about how many stations a TV network can own; not anymore 


* Regulations limited by the 1st Amendment 

advocacy/interest groups

* US has robust civil society; democratic participation 
* Ex. Boycotts of corporate advertisers by the public to get content off the air 
* Non-government groups advocating for certain policies 

Gatekeepers

parents and schools

* Parents want to regulate what their children consume 
* Ex. Library debate among schools 
* Groups from the left and right 
* Gatekeepers

Record companies and book publishers

* Ex. Publishers decide what to publish; librarians decide what to put in their libraries; sensitivity readers read for anything possibly upsetting 

Gatekeepers

Tyranny of the majority

* Certain rights are so basic that the majority agrees on them; they cannot be taken away. We have these rights to protect us from the tyranny of the majority.
* Ex. Right to a fair trial
* Freedom of speech isn’t determined by the majority

philosophical basis of first amendment

Ideas of three men: John Milton, Thomas Jefferson, and John Stuart Mill

Milton

* marketplace of ideas; taking ideas from free market economy
* Truth will arise out of competition for thought
* Good ideas will succeed bad ideas 
* Truth will emerge victorious in the end 

Mill

* British philosopher; 3-prong-defense of freedom of speech


1. As opinion is silenced, truth is silenced as well (need diversity of opinions) 
2. Even wrong opinions may contain an element of truth necessary to discover the whole truth (rarely is any opinion totally true or totally false; culminated opinion) 
3. Even if commonly accepted opinion is the whole truth, people won’t hold it as rational belief, but as prejudice (contending with alternatives; comparing viewpoints; diversity of opinions; only through disagreements can we find the truth) 


1. Prejudice: accepting something as true because people tell you it’s true 

* Importance of defending beliefs against those who disagree with you 

Jefferson

* son of enlightenment ideals; believed in capacity of reason 
* The newspapers shouldn’t be regulated by government; the public should be able to make sense of it 
* Citizens should be well informed and they will keep society functioning 

Three-pronged defense

1. As opinion is silenced, truth is silenced as well (need diversity of opinions) 
2. Even wrong opinions may contain an element of truth necessary to discover the whole truth (rarely is any opinion totally true or totally false; culminated opinion) 
3. Even if commonly accepted opinion is the whole truth, people won’t hold it as rational belief, but as prejudice (contending with alternatives; comparing viewpoints; diversity of opinions; only through disagreements can we find the truth) 

classical libertarianism

\-political tradition and a branch of liberalism that advocates free market and laissez-faire economics; civil liberties under the rule of law with especial emphasis on individual autonomy, limited government, economic freedom, political freedom and freedom of speech.

\-the government's role is to protect the rights of the individual, rather than regulating business in any way.

\-What you get when you combine three-pronged defense

absolutism

take literal interpretation of 1st amendment

consensus definition

* What the majority agrees on
* some restrictions are necessary BUT, no restriction should be allowed simply because the speech isn’t popular (1st amendment)

American exceptionalism

belief that the United States is either distinctive, unique, or exemplary compared to other nations.

When can the government censor free speech?

* specific, imminent, serious harm that can’t be averted by other counter speech

Exceptions to protection (know three or four out of the fifteen or so from the discussion)

* Slander, libel
* Slander is spoken; libel is written
* Different standards for public figures; celebrities
* Must prove actual malice; you knew the statement was false and did it anyways
* Violation of national security
* If it harms/endangers government/country, government can step in
* The government has certain rights to privacy; some information must be kept secret, but not forever
* Freedom of Information act: limits on how long governments can keep information private
* Privacy
* The right to keep some things private
* Illegal to do celebrity sponsors/endorsements without their permission/consent
* Content of court
* The government can’t establish religion; Public officials can’t espouse religion at school
* Copyright
* Can’t use someone’s work without their consent
* Ex. Film, photos, sound recordings
* Even colors have been copyrighted
* No false advertising
* Advertising very specific, imminent overthrow of the government is illegal
* You are allowed to burn the US flag
* Vast majority of public speech is legal
* Interference with Administration of justice
* Can’t do things that would potentially interfere with the justice system; ex. Swaying the jury
* Compelled speech
* Can’t prevent nor force you to speak; the government cannot force you to speak
* Exception: court of law; if government proves material is necessary/can’t be found any other way, they can force you to speak; especially journalists
* Jurors cannot talk to anyone about the case
* Speech codes—dominant on college campuses/universities. Permitting what type of language is appropriate for use.
* Ex. Content warnings
* Every speech code viewed by courts has been struck down
* Threats/harassment not allowed
* Schools—students under 18
* Teachers can prevent you from speaking to maintain order
* Schools can regulate what students do at school

Paramount problems from creating new exceptions

1. Definition
2. Necessary cost/benefit analysis

Free speech on campuses

* Most colleges have a speech code 
* Hate speech is protected under the 1st amendment; exceptions exist 
* Sending threats, vandalism 
* Free speech is being impacted on college campuses 
* Public figures are being uninvited from university events or choosing not to come  
* Student protests are a tool to de-platform public figures  

Heckler’s veto and de-platforming

* Stopping someone from speaking through various forms of interruption; ex. Physically blocking someone or talking over someone 
* Many public speaker’s don’t want to come to college campuses for this reason 

Right to be heard and to hear

* People have the right to speak; people have the right to listen 
* Heckler’s veto stops this from happening