Studied by 12 people
content medium
specific content function; you are receiving information that you want
Ex. Newspapers
Ex. Using weather channel to pick out your outfit
Content function
A function based on what the medium conveys
Ex. the weather channel tells us what to wear on a given day
Medium function
A function based on what the medium conveys
Ex. the weather channel tells us what to wear on a given day
Manifest function
Obvious , intended, and on the surface functions
Couple listens to radio to be informed
Latent function
Unintended, hidden or beneath the surface functions
Ex. The couple listens to the radio to avoid arguing with one another
6 Societal functions of media
Status conferral: if something makes the news, those issues are important; you should pay attention
Media can shape the agenda
Passing on societies norms, values, and traditions; enforcement
We learn American values from the mass media
Enforcement: learning what happens if you disobey
Narcotizing: narcotics distort your senses
Negative function/dysfunction
Media makes us apathetic; clutters our brains/dopes us up
We like to focus on superficiality; we don’t want to feel/think
Gets people to passively scroll/use media
Media can negatively affect our ambitions/thought-process
Services political system
We learn about our government through mass media
Both nationally and globally; can communicate message internationally
Media enforces community and social cohesion
We all have the same baseline knowledge
Connects us to other people; happens most dramatically in times of crisis
Services the economy
Capitalism: Advertising supports economy and the media
8 Individual functions of media
Helps guide behavior
Helps guide our understanding
Helps us form our self-concepts
Professional tool: helping you with a job or profession
Facilitates social interaction
Substitute for interaction
Emotional release
Ritualizing our lives
5 storage issues of media content
Longevity: how long will it last?
Longevity sacrificed for portability
Ex. Most silent films have been lost
Capacity: how much content can be stored?
Technology has allowed us to store a lot of content in a small space
Miniaturization of content
Portability: how easily can we move it from one place to another?
Portability can be tied to capacity
Accessibility: how easily can you access the content?
Some media can be lost because we don’t have the tools to access it anymore
Ex. Cassette tapes
Modern technology provides more access than ever before
Reproducibility: how easily/accurately can you duplicate the content?
Name one way the advent of sound changed the movie industry.
It can immerse an audience in a unique world, help tell the story and move the storyline along. Sound can also help create emotion and set the tone of the film. A film's sound is just as important as the visuals on screen.
What is the “mirror analogy” regarding selection in the news?
the news mirrors reality by reflecting the world and its events
Selection process is intuitive
Axioms of interpersonal communication
Communication can be intentional or unintentional
All behavior has the potential to communicate
Communication is irreversible and unrepeatable
Social and political consequences of storage
-civilization is the result of laws and shared information
-we now have widespread trade of online information
-your online information isn’t private; everyone has access to it
-things you do online don’t go away; example of tweets coming back to haunt people
-anyone has the right to film you; example of George Floyd murder
Describe and give an example of the status conferral function of the mass media.
the status-conferral function of the media is the idea that being reported on by the mass media gives a movement, situation, or person a certain status
-ex. If something makes the news, it’s important; you should pay attention
Cite one way in which the blockbuster trend changed the American movie aesthetic
-blockbuster films were very popular; people would go see the movie multiple times
-investing a lot of money in a few movies or shows in hope for a hit is the strategy the movie industry follows.
Comprehend and explain the role of each of the basic mass media (books, magazines, newspapers, music, film, radio, television, the internet and digital media) and how they function in and impact the contemporary world
-Magazines: first medium to reach a national audience on a regular basis
-newspapers: first to become a true mass medium; became available to large numbers of people on a regular basis
-radio: the most familiar and far-reaching mass communication medium in the world
-television: still the dominant medium for majority of Americans
-music: industry has the highest rate of turnover and talent; it is constantly changing; has something to offer to everyone; personalization
Content versus medium
general nature of the medium vs the conditions of its use
-ex. Movie theaters—content is largely irrelevant; viewers come for the experience; medium function more important
Manifest versus latent
Manifest: related to news/current events; obvious, intended
Latent: subconscious, hidden messages; can be unintended
Vivid media memories
tangible memories that last a lifetime
persistence of vision
allows the eye to process as a series
Motion pictures are series of multiple images played in succession
pictorial realism
(1890s) realistic pictures showing movement
Quite short; usually viewed in an arcade
Sustained narrative
Early 1900s: we saw first feature length film, first directors
Evolution of industry as a result of new technology
Feature-length film, film stars, distinguished directors, film palaces, Hollywood
Film as a business
Film industry was taken over by non Hollywood interests; mostly conglomerates
#1 goal was to make a profit
Nickelodeons
Early motion-picture theater, so named because admission typically cost a nickel. Nickelodeons offered continuous showings of one- and two-reel films, lasting from 15 minutes to one hour and accompanied by a piano.
MPPC fight
-The MPPC ended the domination of foreign films on US screens, standardized the manner in which films were distributed and exhibited within the US, and improved the quality of US motion pictures by internal competition. But it also discouraged its members' entry into feature film production, and the use of outside financing, both to its members' eventual detriment.
-Many independent filmmakers, who controlled from one-quarter to one-third of the domestic marketplace, responded to the creation of the MPPC by moving their operations to Hollywood, whose distance from Edison's home base of New Jersey made it more difficult for the MPPC to enforce its patents.
Golden Age Of film
began during the Great Depression in the late 1920s and continued throughout the early 1960s; when the cinema experienced great advancement in picture quality and sound.
Post-World War II decline Of film
Television
Red scare
Paramount Case
Foreign film
Response to decline in film
Industry responded frantically
Improvements to technology; sound and color
Better theaters
Don’t cooperate with the enemy—TV industry
3D movies
Adding aromas to theaters
Willing to try anything to get people interested again
Non-Hollywood business interests
Studios relied on large-scale movies that could interest everyone
Spectacle films
There were successful films at the time, but there were also a lot of expensive failures
Takeover of Hollywood by non-Hollywood interests; mostly conglomerates
new American cinema (1960s-early 1970s)
As society changes, film changes
Freedom of expression
Independent filmmakers
Films became more experimental
No longer had to appeal to everyone
More sophisticated audiences
More social commentary films
youth influence on film
The young went to the movies the most
Older folks more sedentary
Ages 16-30 most prominent demographic
Disaster films became popular
Teens most important demographic; they buy more concessions; movies sometimes aimed at teens are cheaper to produce; teens more likely to see the same movie twice
Blockbusters
Mid-1970s: Blockbuster Era
Blockbuster films make a lot of money
Ex. Star Wars/Jaws
People saw blockbuster movies multiple times
change in film aesthetics
Changes in film aesthetic: more about the sensory experience
Big, star-studded, special effects films
Aired in the summers (most turnout)
Movies scripts were focused on characters that would be played by actors; not the other way around (movies based on actors)
Sequels, remakes, prequels, reboots, films based on: TV shows, comic books, video games, books, games and toys
Obsessive use of sequels beginning in the 1970s
90s-21st century: sequels perform better
Remakes
Making the same film but in a new era/different cast
Prequels
What happened before the story started
Reboots
Re-telling the story in a new way; with a new take
Remake vs reboot
Reboot usually refers to a series of films
Disregards previous continuity and starts from a fresh perspective
Re-invigorate a stale franchise
Remakes are a re-telling of a film NOT in a series
Films based on other Media
Television shows, video games, books, comics, etc.
easier when a fan base is already established
Nostalgia factor
Became virtually impossible to create idiosyncratic films in Hollywood industry
Big budgets In the industry
Today, the avg. Hollywood film costs 100 million dollars to produce
Spend more, make more
Concern with money became important as non-film companies took over the industry
Lowest-common-denominator (LCD)
The more a movie costs, the more it has to appeal to the LCD
Less likely to make any big claims; these movies aren’t supposed to make you think critically
Actors
Marketing is important: celebrities are marketable; they drive tickets for box offices
Have lots of money and power
Open up a movie strong with a big star so its a good first weekend
Foreign markets—make 70% of profit outside US
Stories based on characters (rather than stars)
Start with character and then find the actor
CB zero (cash break zero)—stars get less upfront and get share of profit after studio breaks even
Movie release strategies
(Jaws) set new precedents for the industry: multi-theater release at the same time; the "summer blockbuster" (summer was largely seen as off-season to that point); and increased budgets for advertising and marketing of films.
Hollywood has designated summer as a movie season in itself, with blockbusters hitting the big screen every year in June, July, and August. The release of Jaws changed how Hollywood marketed films and introduced the idea of a universal opening weekend.
agents
1920s, agents became a part of the scene.
OG Actors weren’t informed enough to deal with those companies, so the idea of having an advocate, someone who could represent their interests, was suddenly very attractive—and necessary.
Agents sold themselves to actors by promising to open those sturdy studio gates. These men knew the executives and producers. They could make life a lot easier (and more profitable) for actors.
Independent films
Hollywood has never been focused on art; Hollywood films made no major claims; it was just a form of entertainment
Filmmakers flocked to metropolitan areas, became more affluent; now movies considered art form
Artists came to LA
Indie films were made outside of Hollywood industry; they cost less, used less renowned celebrities, and appealed to more educated audiences
Specialty divisions
Studios create special divisions for independent filmmakers.
Hollywood and independent cinema continued to converge, especially when the major entertainment conglomerates started introducing specialty film divisions to control more effectively the increasingly lucrative independent film market.
These divisions, together with other well-capitalized companies, often invested huge funds in the production and marketing of their films, which enabled them to lure major stars.
In turn, a number of Hollywood stars, frequently through their own film production companies, used this opportunity to pursue passion projects that allowed them to stretch their acting skills, take artistic risks, and be taken more seriously by critics and peers.
Foreign films/documentaries
Foreign films compete with American films because they appeal to the same inter(national) audiences
Significant overlap
cineplex
Theaters with more than one screen
Megaplex: theaters with 20 or more screens
Mostly chain-owned
drive-ins
-Popularity of the drive-in spiked after World War II and reached its heyday in the late 1950s to mid-60s, with some 5,000 theaters across the country. Drive-ins became an icon of American culture, and a typical weekend destination not just for parents and children but also for teenage couples seeking some privacy.
-drive-in movies have lost popularity over time but made a comeback during covid.
Modern theaters
People encouraged to spend lots of time at the movies
More comfortable<bigger seats
Attached to other chains; all-in-one experience
film’s relationship with television
Post-WWII boom of TV
Learned to cooperate
You can license your movies and sell them to TV providers
Made-for-TV movies
New ways to make money
Video—sold to video rental stores
When video came out, industry was afraid
New revenue streams
Selling/renting copies for distribution for stores; Blockbuster rental fees
Direct-to-video
the release of a film, television series, short or special to the public immediately on home video formats rather than an initial theatrical release or television premiere.
Initially only bad films/sequels to animation films
Over time, studies make more profit on video than box offices
Decreasing amount of money made from box office; other ways
Digital downloads
acquire a single copy of the film on digital device such as a personal computer, smartphone, tablet computer, or digital media player, and view it on those devices without requiring access to the physical media.
streaming
a method of transmitting or receiving data (especially video and audio material) over a computer network as a steady, continuous flow, allowing playback to start while the rest of the data is still being received.
Death of theaters?
Suman says no. People still enjoy going to movies; communal experience; absence of distraction; novelty of experience
Merchandizing and many ways to make $
The sale of goods related to a movie can generate a lot of income. There are a lot of movies that have spurred on merchandise sales. Sometimes, the presale of merchandising rights can contribute to the budget of the movie's production. Merchandising also plays a critical role when it comes to the marketing of a film.
Studios today
Consolidation of movie industry by major producers
Most production work done by 100s of smaller independent companies
Studios don’t control actors anymore; actors are free agents
studios get the money; central form of organization
Nature of film—persuasive potential
Films have the potential to create a strong perspective that is presenting a specific point of view and trying to convince the viewer of something.
However, most filmmakers don’t attempt to teach the viewer something new; their goal is to be entertaining
Cliches
purposefully unoriginal, that it is purposefully tired and boring, and predictable.
regulation of film industry
-1915 In Mutual Film Corporation v. Industrial Commission of Ohio, the Supreme Court holds that movies are not protected by the First Amendment. The ruling allows state and local boards to continue censoring films.
-1922 The Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America (MPPDA), later to become the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) is formed, led by Former Postmaster General William H. Hays.
-1956 MPAA initiates a review of the Production Code, which results in loosening its prohibitions on the portrayal of drug use, abortion, miscegenation, prostitution, and abortion. The revised code added a prohibition on blasphemy and ridiculing the clergy.
-1968 MPAA institutes a nationwide system of voluntary ratings based on the viewer's age, in response to continuing objections to the Production Code, and to court rulings indicating that different First Amendment standards apply to adults and minors. The original ratings are G for General Audiences, M for Mature Audiences, R for 16 and above, unless accompanied by a parent or guardian, and X, under 16 not admitted.
1915 Supreme Court decision
Later overruled, this decision held that motion pictures are business rather than art and are not subject to First Amendment protections.
miracle case
the Court determined that free speech protection equally applied to motion pictures. With its ruling in the Burstyn case, which is often referred to as The Miracle Decision, the Supreme Court reversed earlier rulings and ended decades of censorship in American cinemas.
Hayes office and code
The Hays Code was this self-imposed industry set of guidelines for all the motion pictures that were released between 1934 and 1968,” says O'Brien. “The code prohibited profanity, suggestive nudity, graphic or realistic violence, sexual persuasions and rape.
MPAA
the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) from 1945 until September 2019, its original goal was to ensure the viability of the American film industry.
The MPA also runs the voluntary film rating system and has been involved in American film regulation and censorship since the 1920s. The censorship efforts conducted by the MPAA and the ways in which they rate films have been the subject of much controversy over the years
Digital: nature and distribution
the delivery or distribution of digital media content such as audio, video, e-books, video games, and other software.
Net downloads: saving to your computer/digital download
internet’s effects on film
interest in going to movie theaters has been decreasing as a direct effect of the growing popularity of major streaming services, such as Netflix and Amazon Prime. This reduces the number of people who go to movie theaters to see the latest films and damages the industry irrevocably.
Industry waits to make streaming available after a few months
They still want us to go to the movies
Day & Date Release: Netflix; during pandemic, many movies went straight to streaming
Most people stream the movies they watch
Film vs TV
By the 1960s, more than half of all American homes contained television sets, and TV had done away with nearly everything that made the major motion picture studios so great. Tighter belts meant movie studios took fewer creative risks and invested less money in quality films. Movie palaces fell into disrepair
Studios relied on large-scale movies that could interest everyone
Spectacle films
There were successful films at the time, but there were also a lot of expensive failures
Takeover of Hollywood by non-Hollywood interests; mostly conglomerates
Media support systems
Audience supported
Advertiser supported
Combination of 1 & 2
Subsidized
How are audiences measured?
Audience measurement is typically further segmented by media markets, which are defined by the size of a metropolitan area. In linear TV advertising, gross rating points (GRPs) or target rating points (TRPs) are the standard unit of measurement.
Nielsen Company: delivers data on ratings/shares; how many people watch a certain show
People meter: every individual in a household has their own button
Measures what you watch
Avg. # of people watching from start-to-finish
42,500 people participating
Calculating minute-by-minute viewing
Nielsen ratings
an estimate of the total number of viewers for a particular television program, expressed as a percentage of the total number of viewers whose television sets are on at the time and based on a monitoring of the sets of a preselected sample of viewers.
People meter
an electronic device used to record the television viewing habits of a household so that the information obtained can be used to compile ratings.
rating
(number of viewers/total universe of potential viewers)
Share
number of viewers/total number of TV watchers at a given time
Portable people meter
-device you wear; tracks all the TV you consume at home and away
also known as the Nielsen Meter, was a system developed by Arbitron (now Nielsen Audio) to measure how many people are exposed, or listening to individual radio stations and television stations. This also includes cable television.
sweeps
time periods when television stations/networks typically schedule programming designed to attract a larger than usual audience. Why? Sweep period programming is designed to attract larger audiences who in turn are exposed to advertising commercial messages.
DVR viewing
(Digital Video Recorder) Also known as a "personal video recorder" (PVR) or "hard disk recorder," a DVR is a consumer device that allows the viewer to pause and rewind any broadcast, cable or satellite TV program as well as record and play back selected programs
C3 vs C7
C3, C7 (linear viewership within the three or seven days, respectively).
Audience composition (demographics)
Characteristics/demographics of viewers
Geography important: denser the environment, more money you can make
Age important: ages 18-49 most important demographic; advertisers pay the most to target these groups
Sex important: males vs females
Income important
news- agenda setting
Process of selection: news media decides what’s important to cover; determines what we think about
The media sets the agenda—how do they select the news?
Agenda setting
news-gatekeepers
those involved with selection process of news
Ex. Cameraman, editor, producer
Bias: how do you choose and why?
news-mirror analogy
the news mirrors reality by reflecting the world and its events
Selection process is intuitive; not satisfying
5 factors influencing the news
News people a. Political bias b. Subcultural bias
Organizational factors a. Beat system b. Pack journalism c. Regularized news d. Deadlines
Technology
Factors within the story a. Events b. Timeliness c. Drama d. Conflict e. Proximity f. Personalization g. Good film
Audience a. Different media/different coverage b. Quest for large ones for profit and prestige c. Role of the internet
Changing definition of news
Algorithms
Individual pieces
Filter bubbles/personalized news
Change in consumption patterns
Traditional orgs ceding power
Centralization
New gatekeepers
Live streaming-more stories more quickly from more people
Audiences’ increasing role in creating and passing on news
Fake news
misinformation
A lot of what we see online is fake
People accuse content they don’t like as fake news
13 issues of ethics in the mass media
Privacy
Basic obligations to fellow human beings
Conflict of interest
Trials and court cases
Gifts and payola
Reporting on crime
Stereotypes (including whitewashing, racial erasure, flower vases)
Accuracy of information
Undercover reporting
Checkbook journalism
Reporting on risks
War photos
Taste
De-regulation
Telecom act of 1996
There used to be strict laws about how many stations a TV network can own; not anymore
Regulations limited by the 1st Amendment
advocacy/interest groups
US has robust civil society; democratic participation
Ex. Boycotts of corporate advertisers by the public to get content off the air
Non-government groups advocating for certain policies
Gatekeepers
parents and schools
Parents want to regulate what their children consume
Ex. Library debate among schools
Groups from the left and right
Gatekeepers
Record companies and book publishers
Ex. Publishers decide what to publish; librarians decide what to put in their libraries; sensitivity readers read for anything possibly upsetting
Gatekeepers
Tyranny of the majority
Certain rights are so basic that the majority agrees on them; they cannot be taken away. We have these rights to protect us from the tyranny of the majority.
Ex. Right to a fair trial
Freedom of speech isn’t determined by the majority
philosophical basis of first amendment
Ideas of three men: John Milton, Thomas Jefferson, and John Stuart Mill
Milton
marketplace of ideas; taking ideas from free market economy
Truth will arise out of competition for thought
Good ideas will succeed bad ideas
Truth will emerge victorious in the end
Mill
British philosopher; 3-prong-defense of freedom of speech
As opinion is silenced, truth is silenced as well (need diversity of opinions)
Even wrong opinions may contain an element of truth necessary to discover the whole truth (rarely is any opinion totally true or totally false; culminated opinion)
Even if commonly accepted opinion is the whole truth, people won’t hold it as rational belief, but as prejudice (contending with alternatives; comparing viewpoints; diversity of opinions; only through disagreements can we find the truth)
Prejudice: accepting something as true because people tell you it’s true
Importance of defending beliefs against those who disagree with you
Jefferson
son of enlightenment ideals; believed in capacity of reason
The newspapers shouldn’t be regulated by government; the public should be able to make sense of it
Citizens should be well informed and they will keep society functioning
Three-pronged defense
As opinion is silenced, truth is silenced as well (need diversity of opinions)
Even wrong opinions may contain an element of truth necessary to discover the whole truth (rarely is any opinion totally true or totally false; culminated opinion)
Even if commonly accepted opinion is the whole truth, people won’t hold it as rational belief, but as prejudice (contending with alternatives; comparing viewpoints; diversity of opinions; only through disagreements can we find the truth)
classical libertarianism
-political tradition and a branch of liberalism that advocates free market and laissez-faire economics; civil liberties under the rule of law with especial emphasis on individual autonomy, limited government, economic freedom, political freedom and freedom of speech.
-the government's role is to protect the rights of the individual, rather than regulating business in any way.
-What you get when you combine three-pronged defense
absolutism
take literal interpretation of 1st amendment
consensus definition
What the majority agrees on
some restrictions are necessary BUT, no restriction should be allowed simply because the speech isn’t popular (1st amendment)
American exceptionalism
belief that the United States is either distinctive, unique, or exemplary compared to other nations.
When can the government censor free speech?
specific, imminent, serious harm that can’t be averted by other counter speech
Exceptions to protection (know three or four out of the fifteen or so from the discussion)
Slander, libel
Slander is spoken; libel is written
Different standards for public figures; celebrities
Must prove actual malice; you knew the statement was false and did it anyways
Violation of national security
If it harms/endangers government/country, government can step in
The government has certain rights to privacy; some information must be kept secret, but not forever
Freedom of Information act: limits on how long governments can keep information private
Privacy
The right to keep some things private
Illegal to do celebrity sponsors/endorsements without their permission/consent
Content of court
The government can’t establish religion; Public officials can’t espouse religion at school
Copyright
Can’t use someone’s work without their consent
Ex. Film, photos, sound recordings
Even colors have been copyrighted
No false advertising
Advertising very specific, imminent overthrow of the government is illegal
You are allowed to burn the US flag
Vast majority of public speech is legal
Interference with Administration of justice
Can’t do things that would potentially interfere with the justice system; ex. Swaying the jury
Compelled speech
Can’t prevent nor force you to speak; the government cannot force you to speak
Exception: court of law; if government proves material is necessary/can’t be found any other way, they can force you to speak; especially journalists
Jurors cannot talk to anyone about the case
Speech codes—dominant on college campuses/universities. Permitting what type of language is appropriate for use.
Ex. Content warnings
Every speech code viewed by courts has been struck down
Threats/harassment not allowed
Schools—students under 18
Teachers can prevent you from speaking to maintain order
Schools can regulate what students do at school
Paramount problems from creating new exceptions
Definition
Necessary cost/benefit analysis
Free speech on campuses
Most colleges have a speech code
Hate speech is protected under the 1st amendment; exceptions exist
Sending threats, vandalism
Free speech is being impacted on college campuses
Public figures are being uninvited from university events or choosing not to come
Student protests are a tool to de-platform public figures
Heckler’s veto and de-platforming
Stopping someone from speaking through various forms of interruption; ex. Physically blocking someone or talking over someone
Many public speaker’s don’t want to come to college campuses for this reason
Right to be heard and to hear
People have the right to speak; people have the right to listen
Heckler’s veto stops this from happening
Note 
Flashcard (93)