Cumulative Psychology Review Vocabulary

AP Psychology Vocabulary + Material

Neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.

Cell Body

the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell's life-support center.

Dendrites

a neuron's often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body.

Axon

the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands.

Myelin Sheath

a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next.

Glial Cells (glia)

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they also play a role in learning thinking, and memory.

Action Potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.

Threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.

Refractory Period

in neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state.

All-or-none response

a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing.

Synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft.

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.

Reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

Endorphins

"morphine within" —natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

Agonist

a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter's action.

Antagonist

a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter's action.

Nervous System

the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body.

Nerves

bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs.

Sensory (afferent) Neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the body's tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.

Motor (efferent) Neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands.

Interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord; they communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.

Somatic Nervous System

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

Sympathetic Nervous System

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.

Reflex

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response.

Endocrine System

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

Hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues.

Adrenal Glands

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.

Pituitary Gland

the endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

Lesion

Tissue destruction. A brain ____ is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue.

EEG (electroencephalogram)

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

MEG (magnetoencephalography)

a brain imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from the brain's natural electrical activity.

CT (computed tomography)

scan a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain's structure. (Also called CAT scan.)

PET (positron emission tomography)

scan a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. ____ scans show brain anatomy.

fMRI (functional MRI)

a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. ____ scans show brain function as well as structure.

Brainstem

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions.

Medulla

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing.

Thalamus

the brain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.

Reticular Formation

a nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal.

Cerebellum

the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory.

Limbic System

neural system (including the amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives.

Amygdala

two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion.

Hypothalamus

a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

Hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process for storage explicit (conscious) memories of facts and events.

Cerebral Cortex

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.

Frontal Lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments.

Parietal Lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position.

Occipital Lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields.

Temporal Lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear.

Motor Cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.

Somatosensory Cortex

an area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.

Association Areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.

Plasticity

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience.

Neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons.

Behavior Genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.

Heredity

the genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring.

Environment

every non-genetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us.

Chromosomes

threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes.

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.

Genes

the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins.

Genome

the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes.

Identical (monozygotic) twins

develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms.

Fraternal (dizygotic) twins

develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than ordinary brothers and sisters, but they share a prenatal environment.

Heritability

the proportion of variation among individuals in a group that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.

Interaction

the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity).

Molecular genetics

the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes.

Molecular behavior Genetics

the study of how the structure and function of genes interact with our environment to influence behavior.

Epigenetics

"above" or "in addition to" (epi) genetics; the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change.

Evolutionary Psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.

Natural Selection

the principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.

Mutation

a random error in gene replication that leads to a change.

Social Script

a culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations.

Critical Thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions .

Empiricism

the idea that knowledge comes from experience, and that observation and experimentation enable scientific knowledge.

Structuralism

an early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind.

Introspection

the process of looking inward in an attempt to directly observe one's own psychological processes.

Functionalism

an early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function-how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish.

Behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

Humanistic Psychology

A historically significant perspective that emphasized human growth potential. Emphasizes free will and a person’s desire toward self-actualization.

Cognitive Psychology

the study of mental processes, such as occur when we perceive, learn, remember, think, communicate, and solve problems (inner-thoughts). Used in Cognitive Behavioral Therapy.

Cognitive Neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language).

Psychology

the science of behavior and mental processes.

Nature-Nurture Issue

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture.

Natural Selection

the principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.

Evolutionary Psychology

the principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.

Behavior Genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.

Culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

Positive Psychology

the scientific study of human flourishing with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive.

Biopsychosocial Approach

approach an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural viewpoints.

Behavioral Psychology

the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning - studies conditioning.

Biological Psychology

the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes. (Some biological psychologists call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists.)

Hindsight Bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.)

Theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

Hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

Operational Definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced.