Ultimate AP Government Exam Cram Notes

Unit 1 (Foundations of American Democracy)

Chapter 1 (Founding Principles)

Topic 1.1 - Ideals of Democracy

• Enlightenment Thought:

  • Hobbes: Strong, absolute power for stability; social contract.

  • Locke: Natural rights; consensual governance.

  • Montesquieu: Republican government; separation of powers (legislative, executive, judicial).

• Declaration of Independence: Justification for independence based on natural rights and popular sovereignty.

• Articles of Confederation: Weak federal government; states had more power than the federal government.

  • Weaknesses: Federal government couldn’t tax, build an army, or regulate commerce.

• Constitution: Checks and balances; division of power between state & federal government and majority rule and minority rights.

Topic 1.2 - Types of Democracy

• Representative Democracy: Elected officials represent people’s concerns.

• Participatory Democracy: Direct democracy; people vote directly on laws.

• Pluralist Democracy: Interest groups compete to influence policy.

• Elite Democracy: Representative democracy with elites having the most influence.

• Federalist No. 10: Argued that the Constitution limited factionalism through pluralist representation.

Topic 1.3 - Government Power & Individual Liberties

• Federalists: Stronger national government protects minority rights (Federalist No. 10).

• Anti-Federalists: Stronger federal government undermines individual rights (Brutus No.1).

• Bill of Rights: Protects individual rights; pushed for by Anti-Federalists.

Chapter 2 (The Constitution)

Topic 1.4 - Challenges of the AOC

• Articles of Confederation: States had more power than the federal government.

  • Structure: Unicameral; one vote per state; supermajority needed for legislation and amendments.

  • Congressional Powers: Foreign policy, war, acquire territory, encouraged free trade between states.

• Weaknesses of AOC Needed a super majority to pass legislature and amend the constitution

• Shays’ Rebellion: Exposed weakness of AOC; led to Constitutional Convention.

Topic 1.5 - Ratification of the Constitution

• VA Plan: Bicameral legislature; representation based on population.

• NJ Plan: Unicameral legislature; one vote per state.

• The Great Compromise: Bicameralism (HOR & Senate); stronger President & Supreme Court.

• 3/5s Compromise: 3/5s of slaves counted for representation.

• +++_+Electoral College: Electors for each state pick the president.

• Commerce Compromise: Government can impose tariffs on imports only & can regulate interstate commerce.

• Principles: Representative Republic with emphasis on the national government.

• Bill of Rights: Anti-federalists pushed for it.

• Constitution

  • Article I: Vests legislative Powers.

  • Article II: Vests executive Powers.

  • Article III: Vests judicial Powers.

  • Article IV: Provides state’s rights.

  • Article V: Provides constitutional Amendments.

  • Article VI: Provides supremacy Clause

  • Article VII: Provides ratification process for Constitution

Topic 1.6 - Principles of American Government

• Legislative Branch: Congress; makes laws and determines funding.

• Executive Branch: President, VP, & Cabinet; all enforce law.

• Judicial Branch: Supreme Court & lower courts; exercise judicial review.

• Separation of Powers: Division of power through all three branches.

• Checks and Balances: Each branch can limit one another.

  • Lawmaking:

    • Bills must be passed through both houses of Congress with a simple majority (50\% + 1 (VP)).

    • President must approve of laws and can veto it.

    • Congress can override a veto with a super majority (\frac{2}{3}) in each house.

  • Appointments:

    • The Senate can suggest appointees and confirms cabinet members and Supreme Court Justices based off the President's nominations.

    • Impeachment: Power given to House of Reps initiate a trial: Senate then holds trial with Chief Justice presiding; needs a \frac{2}{3} majority to remove someone from office.

• Federalist No. 51: Separation of powers will guard against tyranny.

• Tenth Amendment: Powers not delegated to the federal government are given to the states.

Chapter 3 (Federalism)

Topic 1.7 - Relationship Between States & Federal Government

• Federalism: Sharing powers between national and state governments.

• Constitutional Provisions:

  • Article VI: Supremacy clause.

  • Article IV: Full faith and credit, privileges and immunities, extradition clauses.

• Exclusive Powers: Powers given exclusively to the federal government.

• Police Powers: Power reserved to states.

• Concurrent Powers: Power held by both state & federal government.

• Federal Grant Program: Congress spending revenue on funding states programs.

  • Categorical Grants: Categorical Grants with Strings.

  • Block Grants: grants given for broader reasons with state freedom.

• Devolution: Return to greater state power.

Topic 1.8 - Constitutional Interpretations of Federalism

• Federal Power: Commerce clause. The necessary and proper clause.

• State power: 10th and 14th amendment.

• McCulloch v. Maryland (1819): Federal law overrides state law; states cannot tax federal institutions.

• Dual Federalism: National government is supreme in its sphere, while states are equally supreme in their own sphere.

• Hammer v. Dagenhart: Established a difference between manufacturing (the creation of goods) and commerce (the exchange of goods)

• U.S. v. Lopez (1995): Congress does not have the authority under the commerce clause to outlaw guns near schools; this can only be legislated on the local level.

Topic 1.9 - Federalism in Action

• Environmental Policy: Shared between fed. government & state governments

  • EPA sets air quality standards for states, measures city pollution, & sets enforceable environmental guidelines.

• Marijuana: Liberty v. Order Dispute

  • Legalization: State-by-state process through referendum

  • Federal v. State debate over legality

Unit 2 (Interactions Among Branches of Government)

Chapter 4 (Congress)

Topic 2.1 - Congress

Senators further away from their larger constituency and have more constitutional responsibilities
Representatives work closer with their small constituency and focus more on representing the majority.

Differences between House & Senate

• House:

  • Qualifications: At least 25; Citizen for 7 years; Resident of state where they are elected.

  • Unique Power : Originates revenue bills; Initiates impeachment; Breaks tie for president in EC.

  • Members & Terms: 435 members; 2-year terms & unlimited terms.

  • Structures & Processes: Centralized & hierarchical; Majority controls agenda; Limited debate time & Focus on revenue.

• Senate:

  • Qualifications: At least 30; Citizen for 9 years; Resident of state they represent.

  • Unique Power: Provides “advice & consent” on treaties & appointments & Handlesthe impeachment trials.

  • Members & Terms: 100 members; 6-year terms & unlimited terms.

  • Structures & Processes: Less centralized; Looser debate & Less powerful leaders.

• Caucuses: Groups of like-minded lawmakers.

• Enumerated Powers: Specific powers expressed in Article I, Section 8

  • Power of the Purse: Power to raise revenue & tax.

  • Regulating Commerce: Commerce clause.

  • Foreign & Military Affairs: Congress can raise armies, ratify treaties, create a draft, & declare war

• Implied Powers: Necessary and Proper clause (elastic clause)

Topic 2.2 - Structure, Powers, & Functions of Congress

• House Leadership: Speaker of the House, House Majority/Minority Leaders

• Senate Leadership: Senate Majority Leader, Senate WhipsPresident of Senate, & President Pro Tempore

• Committees:

  • Standing: handles most congressional work

  • Joint: Unite House & Senate members

  • Select: Temporary committees

  • Conference: Temporary committees for figuring out nuance between slightly different bills from both houses.

  • Oversight Hearings: Hearings for executive agencies for Congress to oversee operations

• House Unique Rules: More stringent procedures for passing laws

  • Germane Amendments only focus on the topic

  • Rules Committee: Powerful because they can dispose of a bill.

  • Discharge Petition: A simple majority can vote to take a bill out of a slow or reluctant committee to the floor

• Senate Unique Rules:

  • Filibuster: Speaking for an extremely long amount of time until the deadline for voting expires.

  • Cloture Rule enables ⅗ to end debate on a bill and vote to stop filibusters.

  • Both houses have a foreign policy committee but only the Senate can ratify treaties.

• Legislative Process: Outlines the formal bill process.

• Nongermane Amendments/Riders: Amendments put onto a bill to advance a particular members agenda or the political chances of the bill

• Legislative Process: Extremely hard part of committee as lawmakers have to factor their state/district & party

• Budget: Congress has the job to generate a budget by managing revenue via creating laws on taxation

  • OMB: Office of Management and Budget; President’s budgeting arm/accountant

Topic 2.3 - Congressional Behavior

• Voting Models

  • Delegate Model: Used in House; member representing & voting for a constituency.

  • Trustee Model: Used in Senate; member believes their constituency chose them to make their best judgement.

  • Politico Model: Blend of delegate & trustee model.

• Baker v. Carr (1962): Can the SCOTUS render judgement on the constitutionality of legislative districts.

• Gerrymandering: Strategically redrawing boundary lines to benefit one party.

• Racial Gerrymandering: Drawing legislative districts to purposefully dilute or increase the power of minority votes on the basis of race

• Shaw v. Reno (1993): Does a congressional district designed for the purpose of assuring a majority black population violate the 14th Amendment's equal protection clause?

• Divided Government: Partisan gridlock (opposition) between House/Senate & President

Chapter 5 (The Presidency)

Topic 2.4 - The President

Wanted to make a limited executive office to reduce risk of tyranny

• Article II: Vests powers in President; has power to: issue pardons, appoint ambassadors, judges, & cabinet members, recommend legislative measures to Congress & veto bills
  After bill is passed in Congress, President has 10 days to sign it; can choose to veto it w/ criticisms which spark discussion in Congress; President can threaten to veto a bill to stop legislative process or reshape the bill

Topic 2.5 - Checks on the President

• Vice President: Has a largely undefined role; some have been particularly influential

• Secretaries: Presidents try to nominate diverse group; tokenism

  • Presidents use formal appointments & informal powers to make bureaucracies work with agenda

Topic 2.6 - Expansion of Presidential Power

• Arguably expanded the role of the President the most; used influence on Congress to pass programs: also expanded the presidency in order to save the Union.
  There would be a need for a strong executive. A unitary executive would result in more energy, direction, and accountability.: - Hamilton

Topic 2. 7 - Presidential Communication

• Communicator-in-Chief Must be able to effectively communicate and represent government to appeal to the people

• FDR used the press to reassure people and articulate his solutions to convince constituents to push for change in Congress
  Presidents give speeches to Congress on the state of economic, military, and social issues etc; happens every year around January; gets enormous media attention*

Chapter 6 (The Judiciary)

Topic 2.8 - The Judicial Branch

• Vested powers of courts; created Supreme Court & allowed Congress to create inferior courts.

• Creates Supreme Court & allowed Congress to create inferior courts
  *Separated Ideological Congress from law-interpreting judiciaries.
  *Three-Level System: Judiciary Act of 1789 defined the three-tier system: three levels (District, Appeal, and Supreme Courts)
  *US District and Appeal Courts can be shaped by losing party appealing verdict to SCOTUS.

Topic 2.9 - Legitimacy of The Judicial Branch

• Common Law: group of court decisions that make up part of the law; precedent: ruling that firmly establishes a legal principle; later followed by subordinate courts

• SCOTUS precedents establishing policy

  • Pairing w/ judicial review SCOTUS can determine lots of national policies

• Know more for continuity than change lifetime tenure and precedents mean little change occurs in operation

• Overturning Precedent SCOTUS has, in many cases, overturned decisions by recognizing errors

Topic 2.10 - Court in Action

• Evolving court often has little change more continuity than change

• Overtime courts transition primarily to focus on expanding civil liberties
  *Amendments can overturn SCOTUS decisions:

Chapter 7 (The Bureaucracy)

Topic 2.12 - Bureaucracy

*Created to take on services such as interstate highways, air traffic, border protection, etc; Federal government agencies interpret, enforce, and administer laws.
*Writing & Enforcing Regulations IRAs have more leeway in enforcing national policies*
*Testifying Before Congress Secretaries & directors are usually experts in their fields.

Topic 2.13 - Discretionary and Rule-Making Authority

The power for bureaucracies to interpret legislation and create rules; Discretion: often requires legislative laws are vague & require experts to properly implement
The Rule-Making Process: Regular basis rule created and revised
Submits summaries on the what and why on regulations

Topic 2.14 - Holding the Bureaucracy Accountable

Influences: Congress create big-picture laws & some regulations, President picks heads, Courts can overturn regulations, interest groups fight for influence on regulations
Power to funding = Congressional Committees
Congress create big picture laws& some regulation

Topic 2.15 - Policy & the Branches of Government

Committee clearance is given to some Congressional committees to review and approve actions of certain agencies in advance when power overlaps

Unit 3 (Civil Liberties & Civil Rights)

Chapter 8 (Bill of Rights & First Amendment)

Topic 3.4 - Bill of Rights

Protect citizen’s liberties, rights, opinions; protects property and delegates all powers not expressed for the federal government to state government.
Key court cases - Review table

Topic 3.2 - First Amendment: Freedom of Religion

• Wall of Separation: “Wall of Separation” between public government and religious institutions

• Prohibits federal government from establishing a national religion: First Amendment

Topic 3.3 - Freedom of Speech

What are the limitation on the freedom to speak?

Topic 3.4 - Freedom of the Press

Publication of false statements which seek to defame a person often high requirement to be considered courts
Governments can’t stop press from printing in advance something in advance

Chapter 9 (Balancing Liberty & Safety)

Topic 3. 5 -2nd Amendment -Right to Bear Arms

Based on the need for an army; only I state protected the right to bear arms for individual self-defense & gun regulations were common
Most gun control are made by states: Nation and state laws
2nd amendment protects individuals rights to bear arms

Topic 3.6 - Individual Freedom with Public Order

The 8th Amendent prevents cruel and unusual punishments and can’t excessive jail
4th amendment bans unreasonable seatches and seizures

Chapter 10 (Due Process)

Topic 3.7 - Selective Incorporation

States do not have to follow BoR Except which Supreme Court makes them do.
Say all can not deprive any person of life and property etc
That there be judicial to make provisions for states to follow BoR. Key cases
Banned on observing Banned obscene speech - Used Selective corporation

Topic 3.8 - Amendments - Due Process and Right of the Accused

Protects citizens from laws with substance violates a basic protection of the US
The Fifth Amendment cannot go away for public without compensation
Free speech is protected, but free processes is less protected.

Topic 3.9 - Amendments: Due Process and Right to Privacy

Protect citizens for laws with substance violates a basic protection
Substantive Due Process in the 60s to the 40s that sought to protect a lifestyle not implied in amendment
The Case ruled to the Supreme Court an interest in the inherent right to its privacy.

Chapter 11 (Civil Rights)

Topic 3.10 - Social Movements and Equal Protection

Equal rights for citizens under low for 14th amendment
Voting rights for the passing of that by 1901. 19th amendments allows all of us to vote

Topic 3.11 - Government Responses to Social Movements

Government and law should be for social movements-14th amendment in response for government on social aspects
Free to act. and gave for voting through government

Topic 3.12 - Balancing Minority and Majority Rights

Separate but equal the high supreme law court.
Balancing through the equality under laws

Topic 3.13 - Affirmative Action*

High institutional actions diversify by rates race gender by minority
For government institution by government and community helping

Unit 4 (Citizens’ Beliefs and Political Ideology)

Chapter 12 (Citizen’s Beliefs & Ideology)

Topic 4.1 - American Attitudes About Government and Politics

Most People believe small government, traditional views small and harsh punishment.
Individualize from lighting to individual Success that’s self-efficient*

Topic 4.2 - Political Socialization

Familial has biggest impact on how political ideology*
Primary & secondary school
Family and geographical is how people think.***

Topic 4.3- Changes in Ideology*

Generational effects of how people change ideology.*
Elections based on beliefs and what is better for and for the voters.

Chapter 13 (Public Opinion)
Topic 4.5 - Measuring Public Opinion
Types of polls
presidential poll ratings and popular and how can you find the most to prove etc.Types is polling use and how public are most popular

Chapter 14 (Political Ideologies and Public Policy*
There is 3 topic and one chapter on our core values
Most people have low debt slow tactics and social services.
Topic4451deology

Amendments Required for AP Tests

1. 1st Amendment: Freedom of religion, speech, press, assembly, and petition.

2. 2nd Amendment: Right to bear arms.

3. 3rd Amendment: Protection from quartering of troops.

4. 4th Amendment: Protection from unreasonable searches and seizures.

5. 5th Amendment: Rights in criminal cases, including due process and protection against self-incrimination.

6. 6th Amendment: Right to a fair trial, including the right to counsel and to confront witnesses.

7. 7th Amendment: Right to jury trial in civil cases.

8. 8th Amendment: Protection against cruel and unusual punishment.

9. 9th Amendment: Rights not enumerated in the Constitution are retained by the people.

10. 10th Amendment: Powers not delegated to the federal government are reserved to the states.

11. 13th Amendment: Abolishes slavery and involuntary servitude.

12. 14th Amendment: Grants citizenship and equal protection under the law to all persons.

13. 15th Amendment: Prohibits the denial of the right to vote based on race.

14. 19th Amendment: Grants women the right to vote.

15. 26th Amendment: Lowers the voting age to 18.

Important Court Cases for AP Tests

1. Marbury v. Madison (1803): Established the principle of judicial review.

2. McCulloch v. Maryland (1819): Established federal supremacy over state law.

3. Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857): Ruled that African Americans could not be citizens.

4. Plessy v. Ferguson (1896): Established the "separate but equal" doctrine.

5. Brown v. Board of Education (1954): Declared segregation in public schools unconstitutional.

6. Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): Right to counsel for criminal defendants.

7. Miranda v. Arizona (1966): Established Miranda rights for individuals in police custody.

8. Loving v. Virginia (1967): Struck down laws banning interracial marriage.

9. Roe v. Wade (1973): Recognized a woman's right to choose to have an abortion.

10. United States v. Lopez (1995): Limited Congress's power under the Commerce Clause.

11. Bush v. Gore (2000): Resolved the 2000 presidential election recount.

12. Obergefell v. Hodges (2015): Legalized same-sex marriage nationwide.

13. Shelby County v. Holder (2013): Invalidated parts of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, impacting federal oversight in voting laws.