People

Ferdinand and Isabella

Founders of Spain who helped unify the country under Catholicism.

Charles V

Ruler of Spain and the Habsburg Empire; struggled to govern both regions effectively.

Phillip II

Son of Charles V; deeply Catholic, ruled Spain with absolute power, launched the Spanish Armada.

Henry IV

French Protestant who converted to Catholicism and issued the Edict of Nantes.

Louis XIV

French "Sun King"; built Versailles, ruled with absolute power.

Jean-Baptiste Colbert

Economic advisor to Louis XIV who strengthened France's economy.

Maria Theresa

First female ruler of Austria; fought in the War of Austrian Succession.

Frederick the Great

King of Prussia; strong military leader despite a personal interest in the arts.

Peter the Great

Russian czar who modernized Russia and built St. Petersburg.

Catherine the Great

German princess who ruled Russia; expanded territory and upheld serfdom.

James I

First Stuart king of England; clashed with Parliament over power.

Charles I

Son of James I; executed after English Civil War.

Oliver Cromwell

Leader of the Roundheads; became head of the Commonwealth.

Charles II

Restored the monarchy after Cromwell; allowed more freedoms.

James II

Catholic king overthrown during the Glorious Revolution.

Mary (of William and Mary)

Daughter of James II; ruled England after Glorious Revolution with Parliament's support.

Thomas Hobbes

Enlightenment thinker who supported absolute monarchy to control selfish humans.

John Locke

Enlightenment thinker who promoted life, liberty, and property; supported democracy.

Montesquieu

Proposed the separation of powers; influenced U.S. government.

Voltaire

Enlightenment writer who supported freedom of speech and religion.

Rousseau

Believed people are naturally good; wrote "The Social Contract."

Olympe de Gouges

Feminist who wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Woman.

Robespierre

Leader during the Reign of Terror; executed many via guillotine.

Napoleon Bonaparte

General who became ruler of France; spread revolutionary ideas and rewrote laws.

Marquis de Lafayette

French noble who supported the revolution and created the French flag.

Adam Smith

Economist who promoted laissez-faire capitalism.