8.Radicalsism, dissent and the approach of war

Key dates 1637-1640

1637:

-Book of Common Prayer introduced

-23 July Prayer Book riot in St Giles Cathedral

-Nov Formation of The Tables

1638:

-Feb Non-conformity made treasonous

-Feb Scottish National Covenant

-Nov General assembly and Parliament suspend the Prayer Book, Canons and Episcopacy

1639:

-April Oath of Allegiance in York

-18 June Pacification of Berwick

-Sept Wentworth recalled from Ireland

1640:

-April-May English Short Parliament

-July Covenanters launch a pre-emptive attack on England

-Sept Treaty of Ripon

The spread of religious radicalism

-Religious radicalism is an umbrella phase that holds diverse facets together. Connected with personal faith, religious radicalism in this period is characterised by a shift onwards from puritanism.

-Radical believers with a focus on individual connection to God expected to hear from god for themselves and looked for evidence of the Holy Spirit around them.

-Connected with the public sphere, religious radicalism is characterised by a drive for tolerance, the relaxation of conformity regulations and the mobilisation of ordinary people inspired by God, into changing the political landscape for the better.

-Religious radicalism surged between 1640 and 1660 revealed in multiple ways and in many theological directions with sects such as the Quakers, Seekers, Ranters and Muggletonians expressing unique perspectives on faith and religious practice.

-However it was 1630s that the seeds of religious radicalism were sown. For the main part the radical sects of the future would be led by educated men such as Richard Overton who were at uni in 1630s. Usually would go to uni like their fathers and end up in a career in law or Church. But found themselves in an atmosphere of noisy religious debate as the church struggled to cope with the profound impact that Laudianism was making. The academic environment stimulated them to think more critically about the world and exposed to a rise in satirical writings that challenged traditional thinking.

Early radical practice

-Laud’s drive for conformity around Arminian practice polarised the Church in the 1630s leading to some Puritans choosing to emigrate to the New World and others to attack Laud in print. By the later 1630s opposition to the Laudian Church also began to result in an increasing number of congregations splintering out of the Anglican Church forming own independent communities of faith.

-The idea that churches could be independent from the Anglican Church was in itself radical in the context of Stuart England. Elizabeth and James both endeavoured to keep the church of England broad enough to be able to hold most believers and practice within its boundaries enabling those outside (dissenters) to be easily identifiable as too extreme for stability or even heretical.

-The existence of functional churches outside the boundaries of Anglicanism had been a facet of the English Church landscape since the reformation but they had been small in number and low in influence marginalised by the breadth of Anglican Church.

-One independent church was found by William Wroth who was a classic Anglican clergyman with a parish in Wales but turned when a parishioner dropped dead on his way to a party. He saw this as divine punishment for a frivolous attitude and became a committed Puritan. In 1633 he refused to read the Book of Sports from his pulpit and reported to Court of High Commission . Under continued pressure to conform he resigned in 1638 but continued to preach. 1639 he set up first independent church of Wales and copied the model of the New England non-conformist Congregational churches.

-Wroth’s church joined a small tradition of Independent Churches and he was helped at Llanvanches, Wales by a leading figure in the dissenting movement(Henry Jessey). Until the later 1630s the number of independents was very small with minimal impact on religious scene. Wroth’s church was part of a growing tide that would swell into a significant proliferation of many more churches in 1640s.

Reaction in Scotland to the new Prayer Book

-It was mismanagement by Charles and his Archbishop that sparked the chain of events that would lead to the king’s first internal war and ultimately to the Civil War itself.

-The kirk was ordered to use the new Prayer book from July 1637 onwards. Knowing the strength of popular opposition some priests took pistols with them to Church in case they needed to defend themselves. The riot in St Giles’ was swiftly followed by a similar uprising in Glasgow. In this instance a leading Presbytarian Robert Baillie was supposed to have led the crucial service but managed to persuade a colleague to take his place and lucky to escape with his life intact.

-Resistance grew and petitions against the policy began to proliferate as an opposition movement developed. Further riots broke out causing the Scottish Privy Council to abandon Edinburgh in October. However leaning on laud and Wentworth, Charles refused to yield. convinced that the authority of the Crown would prevail in Feb 1638 he issued a new proclamation that made it treason to protest against the Prayer Book.

King or Covenant?

-In response to Charles’ proclamation and led by the nobility the Scots took decisive action. A small group from within the Scottish Parliament formed. Known as the Tables it drew up a National Covenant in Feb 1638.(condemnation of Catholicsm and renounced 1633 Canons and Prayer Book) It was a solemn promise made by the people of Scotland to the king that they would not comply with his requirement and that the kirk be transformed.

-The Covenant was entirely in keeping with the Scottish tradition because in the absence of a genuinely independent and representative national Parliament, Scottish nobles had always been able to express concerted resistance to to royal policy by collective refusal. Thorough had not extended into Scotland so regional government was still functioning in its traditional way and therefore the Covenant was a final remaining avenue for opposing the king. There is no evidence that the Scottish nobility expected the Covenant to lead to war: there was no precedent that suggested the king would not yield to such a concerted move.

-Hundreds of thousands of Scots put their names to the Covenant and thus became known as Covenanters. Charles only had 2 choices: to back down or use resources of other kingdoms to enforce his will. Catastrophically Charles persisted his inflexibility explaining to his trusted Scottish advisors the Marquess of Hamilton he doesn’t intend to yield and he’d rather die than do so.

The Bishops’ War

-The scene was set for armed conflict and both sides began to mobilise. To buy himslef time , charles allowed Scots to call a religious General Assembly at Glasgow in Novemeber 1638, which immediately voted to remove the episcopacy and abolish the Prayer Book. By April 1639 however war was imminent and when it beganit became known as Bishops’ War as struggle over episcopacy was so central.

COVENANTERS:

-Speed of mobilisation: Rapid (miscalculation of Charles who had not realised that the Scots nobility could swiftly raise and army)

-Resources: Made use of their good relationship with Protestant powers of Northern Europe to buy weapons and equipment from Holland and Baltic. Support was strong that local committees able to raise hugely increased taxes in order to fund mobilisation.

-Composition of forces: A large number of Scottish soldiers both nobility and common folk returned form Thirty Years War in Europe. battle hardened and professional they were used to train less experienced recruits. Scottish nobility also mobilised local soldiers using a militia system of military district pioneered in Protestant Sweden and asked King of France for help.

-Size and leadership: Around 12k men led by General Alexander Leslie veteran of Thirty Years War. Regimental commanders drawn from nobility other key leadership reserved for professional soldiers able to direct army efficiently. Political leadership strong with men like Earl of Argyll maintaining political momentum and support or the cause.

-Discipline and order: Well disciplined highly motivated and expertly commanded the smaller Scottish forced were ready to fight.

KING’S ARMY:

-Speed of mobilisation: Patchy and slow

-Resources: Accessing only non Parliamentary finances such as feudal revenues personal loans and private gifts Charles struggled to fund his army. Many deserted because they were not paid. Ship money receipts dropped partly in response to Hampden Case and because so many English sympathised with Covenanters fell from 90% to 20%.

-Composition of forces: Wentworth’s Protestant army, Loyalist Scottish highland nobility, English nobility were summoned to York in April 1639 ordered to take oath of allegiance and commanded to put men and money at king’s disposal. Forced men into army than establishing local militia and so didn’t trust their political loyalty. Politically inept move Charles let it be known he was planning to bring in Catholic troops form Ireland and Spain alongside and reinforced the impression by allowing Spanish army to march across southern England to avoid Dutch fleet waiting for them.

-Size and leadership: Around 15k men led by Earl of Arundel supported by Earl of Essex Charles then annoyed both by putting Lord Holland in independent command of the horses and soldiers of the cavalry.

-Discipline and order: Disorderly and ill prepared, English army committed robberies, riots, murder as they marched up the north.

-Pope forbids English Catholics from helping.

Outline of Charles’ strategy

-Charles expected his forces would prove so intimidating that the scots would choose not to fight and confident his army would have the upper hand in any skirmishes.

-Hamilton would lead an assault by boat on the north-east coast of Scotland with 5k men.

-From northern Scotland a loyal nobleman would lead a Royalist force to join up with Hamilton

-Both forces would move south towards Edinburgh

-Naval forces would blockade the Scottish coasts

-Troops would be transported from Ulster in norther Ireland to Western Scotland led by Earl of Antrim

-More forces form Ireland would be brought to strengthen the garrison at Carlisle

-The main English army would assemble at Berwick upon Tweed near Newcastle and move north.

The pacification of Berwick

-The English army musters at Berwick upon Tyne and prepared to enter Scotland while the Scottish army under Leslie were assembled 12 miles away in Duns. Charles gave the order to advance into Scotland and Lord Holland unprofessionally allowed his cavalry to run too far ahead of the infantry into Scottish Army. Leslie had distributed forces cleverly to make them look stronger than they were Holland’s cavalry turned back and exaggerated stories of Scottish strength amongst English army.

-Running out of money having failed to intimidate the Scots into submission with a chaotic and poor quality army and with reports of a well trained and organised Scottish fighting force ahead of him, Charles negotiated the Pacification of Berwick on 18th June 1639. This pacification(truce) of Berwick contained an agreement from both sides to disband the armies, Charles also agreed to recall the Scottish General Assembly and Scottish Parliament.

Options available for Charles

-Strengthen his circle of advisors: Thomas Wentworth was recalled form Ireland in Sept 1639 and elevated to become Earl of Strafford. In his absence order in Ireland began to unravel. Irish Protestants began to offer help to Covenanters. Stafford advised Charles to be strong and unyielding.

-Rethink his Scottish policy: Charles could abandon his Scottish policy remodel the Scottish Privy Council to make it more broadly representative and allow Scottish governing bodies such as the Assembly to work in traditional ways. Not attempted, Charles didn’t believe he should bend his will to accommodate the rebels.

-Raise more money to launch a proper military campaign: Call the English Parliament for subsidies. Parliament was recalled in 1640 and started in a conciliatory manner but Charles resented that he had to call it and dissolved it after 3 weeks.

-Negotiate with European powers: Negotiate with King Philip of Spain or Pope Urban for cash and credit in exchange for concessions for Irish and British Catholics. His preferred option but little financial aid reached him as quite separate revolts broke out in Spain, Portugal and Italy.

-Surrender to the Scottish demands: Scotland would have been allowed to continue dismantling royal power and govern itself. Unthinkable

Second Bishops’ War

-During the Pacification of Berwick neither king nor Covenanters disbanded their army. Charles showed himself to be insincere in his agreement to recall Parliamnet and Assembly by asserting that just because he reached a compromise on this occasion he he should not be taken as a precedent.

-The new General Assembly met in Edinburgh and confirmed the decision ade by Glasgow Assembly 1638. The Scottish Parliament met confirmed that episcopacy was abolished adf set about dismantling royal power in Scotland. The situation was still aflame and in need of resolution.

-Having taken the decision to renew war with Scotland, Charles remaining in London ordered a muster of his troops in York. amid reports of unrest in the country with no money and little popular support for the English army, the Scottish led a pre-emptive attack on Northumberland in July 1640. The English army effectively leaderless as Earl of Northumberland withdrew in cover of illness and Earl of Stafford (Wentworth) was genuinely ill with gout. Following a brief skirmish at Battle of Newburn, the Covenanters took Newcastle and began to advance on York. to make matters worse leading Covenanters were now in regular communication with English opponents of the king.

-With no options remaining Charles called together an ancient institution of Council of Peers which met in York Sept 1640. The council of Peers was a meeting of nobles and senior churchmen that dated back Norman times. Charles revived it and they advised making peace swiftly so October the king signed Treaty of Ripon with Covenanters.

-Treaty of Ripon was a permanent settlement and Charles agreed to Scottish army remain in Northumberland and Durham with headquarters in Newcastle, Paid £850 a day doer the duration, English Parliament recalled and not dissolved until Scots were paid and returned to Scotland.

Impact of Scottish Wars

-Impact in England: Opinion was very mixed in response to Scottish wars.

-Anxiety: William Laud wrote to Wentworth it is not the Scottish business alone I Iook upon but whole frame of things at home and abroad with vast expenses out of little treasure. I see no cure without a miracle.

-Faith: Lady Brilliana Harley a staunch Puritan wrote to her son the cause is the Lord’s and He will work for his own glory- perspective echoed by significant Puritan leaders with government such as Lord Saye and Sele.

-Enmity: Thomas Windebank joined English army in First Bishops’ War and wrote to the Scots scurvy filthy nasty puritanical...crew of the Scottish Covenant.

-Optimism: Some hoped the Bishops Wars would force Charles to recall Parliament re-opening communication allowing discussion of grievances which had been stifled during Personal rule.

-Impact in Scotland: In August 1640 a group of Scottish nobles led by Earl of Montrose signed an agreement , the Cumbernauld Band which expressed their loyalty to the king and a desire to defend his authority. They had been alarmed by the development of radicalism within the ranks of the Covenanters because they felt that they were pushed far from voicing grievances into outright rebellion against the monarch.