AP Psych

Nature / Heredity

passing on of different physical and mental traits from one generation to the other

Nurture

environmental factors like family, society, education influencing your behavior

Interactionist Perspective in Nature vs Nurture debate

both work together to shape a human

Evolutonary perspective

how natural selection affects human behavior and mental processes

Darwin’s Theory of Evolution

Survival of the Fittest, evolution happens by natural selection where organisms pass on traits that survive

Charles Darwin

not a psychologist, but a fundamental pillar for evolution

Eugenics

belief of improve the genetic quality of the human population by selectively breeding for desirable traits and discouraging reproduction among those with traits considered undesirable

Epigenetics

the study of changes in gene expression that do not involve alterations to the underlying DNA sequence, often influenced by environmental factors (genes being turned off due to environmental pressures)

Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart

examined the similarities and differences in personality, intelligence, and other traits between identical twins raised in different environments.

Colorado Adoption Project 1975

a research study that investigated the influence of genetics and environment on cognitive abilities and personality by examining adopted children and their biological and adoptive families.

Plasticity

the brain’s ability to change and adapt as result of changes

CNS Central Nervous System

brain and spinal cord; sends out orders to the body

PNS Peripheral Nervous System

different nerves that stem off the brain and spine, it connects the CNS to the body’s muscles and organs

Afferent Neurons

neurons that transmit sensory information to the central nervous system (approaches the brain)

Efferent Neurons

motor neurons; signals from cns to pns (exits the brain)

Somatic Nervous System

aka the skeletal nervous system, includes your five senses and skeletal muscle movements. These movements happen consciously and voluntarily.

Autonomic Nervous System

controls involuntary activities. This is what makes sure that your heart keeps beating, your stomach keeps digesting, and you keep on breathing.

What do family studies and twin studies show?

They reinforce the interactionist perspective.

Sympathetic Nervous System

prepares the body for action in stressful situations by increasing heart rate, dilating pupils, and releasing adrenaline (fight-or-flight response)

Parasympathetic nervous system

slows the heart rate, promotes digestion, coserves energy (aka rest-and-digest)

Two main types of neural cells

neurons and glial cells

Neurons

carry electrical and chemical signals

Glial cells

maintain structure, insulate neurons, facilitate communication, removing waste

Reflex Arc

rapid, automatic, responses to stimuli that do not require input from the brain

Three types of neurons

sensory neurons, interneurons, motor neurons

Sensory neurons

detect stimuli and send signals to the spinal cord

Interneurons

process the info from sensory neurons and relay it to motor neurons

Motor neurons

send signals to muscles to produce a response

Neural transmission

essential for all thoughts, emotions, and movements and follows a specific sequence

Neuron at resting potential

stable charge

When a resting neuron is stimulated…

it reached its threshold thriggering depolarization

Depolarization

sends electrical signal down the neuron

The signal sent by depolarization follows the…

all-or-nothing principle

All-or-nothing principle

neuron either fires completely or not at all

After firing the neuron enters the refractory period…

a brief period where it cannot be fired again

Once the signal reaches the end of the neuron, chemicals called … are released into the …

chemicals called neurotransmitters are released into the synapse, the tiny gap between neurons

Neurotransmitters are either…

reabsorbed in a process called reuptake, or broken down

Disruptions to neura transmission can have…

significant effects on behavior and mental processes

multiple sclerosis

protective covering of neurons is damages, slowing or blocking signals between the brain and body

myasthenia gravus

communication between neurons and muscles is disrupted causing muscle weakness and fatigue

Excitatory neurosmitters

neuron is more likely to fire

inhibitory neurotransmitters

neuron less likely to fire

Dopamine (neurotransmitter)

associated with movement, motivation, and the brain’s reward system

Serotonin (neurotransmitter)

mood, appetite, and sleep

norepinephrine (neurotransmitter)

alertness and body’s response to stress

Glutamate (main excitatory neurotransmitter)

essential for learning and memory

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) (main inhibitory neurotransmitter)

regulate neural activity and prevent overstimulation

Endorphins (neurotransmitters)

natural painkillers, reduce discomfort and promote pleasure

Substance P (neurotransmitters)

transmite pain signals

Acetylcholine (neurotransmitter)

muscle movement, attention, and memory

Balances of neurotransmitters are curcial for normal cognitive and emotional functioning, if imbalanced it can lead to…

depression and anxiety

Hormones

also influence behavior and mental processes (they produce slower and long-lasting effects)

Hormones are released into…

the bloodstream

Adrenaline

horomone that prepares body for fight-or-flight response

Leptin and Ghrelin Hormones

regulate hunger, with L signalling fullness and G increasing appetite

Melatonin

regulate sleep cycles (hormone)

Oxytocin

social bonding, turst, emotional connection (hormone)

Psychoactive drugs

can alter neural activity by interfering with neurotransmitters

Agonists

Some drugs act as …, which mimic neurotransmitters and enhance neural firing

Antagonists

Others function as …, which block neurotransmitters and reduce neural activity.

Reuptake

Some drugs interfere with …, preventing neurotransmitters from being reabsorbed and prolonging their effects

Stimulants

 such as caffeine and cocaine, increase neural activity, leading to heightened alertness and energy

Depressants

such as sedatives, slow down neural activity, producing relaxation and drowsiness.

Hallucinogens

such as marijuana, distort perception and cognition, altering sensory experiences.

Opioids

such as heroin, act as powerful pain relievers by mimicking the effects of endorphins

Long term use of drugs lead to…

tolerance and continued use leads to addiction

stop of drugs lead to

withdrawal symptoms

Brainstem

oldest and most primitive part of the brain, responsible for basic life-sustaining functions

Medulla

regulates essential processes such as breathing, heart rate, and digestion. Damage to the medulla can be fatal, as it controls functions necessary for survival.

Reticular Activating system

helps regulate alertness and attention. It plays a role in voluntary movement, eye movement, and some types of learning, cognition, and emotion. This system is also involved in the sleep-wake cycle, influencing levels of consciousness and focus.

Brain Reward Center

which reinforces behaviors that promote survival by releasing pleasurable chemicals when we engage in activities such as eating or socializing.

Cerebellum

located at the back of the brain, is responsible for coordinating movement, maintaining balance, and supporting procedural learning. This part of the brain allows for smooth, precise movements and is crucial for activities such as walking, writing, or playing an instrument. Although it is not involved in conscious thought, the … is essential for developing motor skills and muscle memory.

Cerebral cortex

largest and most complex part of the brain. It is divided into two hemispheres and contains specialized regions responsible for perception, thought, language, and decision-making.

Limbic system (w/in the cerebral cortex)

includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, hippocampus, and amygdala, all of which are involved in regulating emotions, memory, and motivation.

Thalamus

relay center, directing sensory info to the appropratie areas of the brain

Hypothalamus

helps regulate homeostasis, including hunger, thirst, and body temperature

Pituitary gland

controls hormone release, influencing growth and metabolism

Hippocampus

essential for forming and retrieving memories

Amygdala

processing emotions, especially (AFRAID) fear and AGRESSION

Cerebral cortex divided into ? lobes

4 lobes

Occipital lobes

located at the back of the brain, process visual information

Temporal lobes

 located on the sides of the brain, are involved in auditory processing and language comprehension

Parietal lobes

located near the back crown of the head, contain association areas that organize and interpret sensory information. Within the ? lobes, the somatosensory cortex processes touch, temperature, and pain sensations

Frontal lobes

located just behind the forehead, are responsible for higher-order thinking, decision-making, and executive functioning. The prefrontal cortex, within the ? lobes, plays a role in reasoning, impulse control, and personality

motor cortex

 At the rear of the frontal lobes, the ? directs voluntary movement by sending signals to the muscles.

Split-brain research

involves patients whose corpus callosum, the connection between the brain’s two hemispheres, is severed. These unique patients give us insight into how the two hemispheres of the brain function. For example, in cases of severe epilepsy, the corpus callosum is sometimes severed to prevent seizures from spreading. This procedure has revealed that the right and left hemispheres specialize in different functions.

Left hemisphere

language; contains Broca’s area responsible for speech productoion and Wernicke’s area for speech comprehension; damage to these areas —> aphasia (affecting language ability)

What the left hand touches is known by the right hemisphere, so if the patients brain is split, it…

cannot communicate to the left side what it knows as left is the speech side (patient will not be able to express verbally as right needs to tell left)

Electroencephalograms (EEGs) measure

electrical activity in the brain and are often used to study sleep and neural activity

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

tracks blood flow to different brain regions, showing which areas are active during certain tasks (showing stucture and function)

surgical procedures such as lesioning

involve intentionally damaging a part of the brain to study its effects, helping researchers understand how specific brain regions contribute to behavior and cognition