U.S. Constitutional Foundations & Key Supreme Court Cases

A set of 46 English vocabulary flashcards covering foundational plans, constitutional clauses, government structure, early American history, amendments, and landmark Supreme Court cases.

New Jersey Plan

Proposal favored by small states calling for equal representation for each state in Congress.

Virginia Plan

Proposal favored by large states seeking representation in Congress based on population.

Connecticut Compromise (Great Compromise)

Agreement combining the New Jersey and Virginia Plans, creating a House based on population and a Senate with equal representation.

3/5 Compromise

Constitutional agreement to count each enslaved person as three-fifths of a person for representation and taxation purposes.

Commerce Clause

Constitutional provision giving Congress power to regulate trade between states and with foreign nations.

Elastic Clause (Necessary & Proper Clause)

Clause allowing Congress to pass laws needed to carry out its enumerated powers.

Supremacy Clause

Article VI statement declaring the Constitution and federal laws superior to state laws.

Article I

Section of the Constitution that establishes the legislative branch (Congress).

Article II

Section of the Constitution that establishes the executive branch headed by the President.

Article III

Section of the Constitution that establishes the judicial branch of federal courts.

Legislature

A law-making body, such as the U.S. Congress.

Democratic Republic

System in which citizens elect representatives to make and enforce laws on their behalf.

Separation of Powers

Principle dividing governmental authority among legislative, executive, and judicial branches.

Checks and Balances

System enabling each branch of government to limit the powers of the others.

John Locke

Enlightenment philosopher who argued for natural rights to life, liberty, and property.

Articles of Confederation

America’s first national government framework, criticized for creating a weak central authority.

Shay’s Rebellion

1786-87 farmer uprising that highlighted the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation.

Federalists

Supporters of the 1787 Constitution who favored a strong national government.

Anti-Federalists

Opponents of the Constitution who advocated stronger state powers and a Bill of Rights.

Federalist Papers

Series of essays by Hamilton, Madison, and Jay promoting ratification of the Constitution.

Bill of Rights

First ten amendments to the Constitution protecting individual freedoms.

Full Faith and Credit Clause

Requires states to honor other states’ public acts, records, and judicial decisions.

Extradition Clause

Mandates that states return fugitives to the state where the crime was committed.

Privileges and Immunities Clause

Prevents states from discriminating unreasonably against citizens of other states.

Formal Amendments

Official changes to the Constitution requiring approval by Congress and the states.

Electoral College System

Indirect method by which the President is elected through appointed electors.

23rd Amendment

1961 amendment granting Washington, D.C. residents the right to vote for President.

Slave Trade Clause

Constitutional provision barring Congress from prohibiting the importation of slaves before 1808.

Escaped Slave Clause

Required fugitive slaves to be returned to owners; later nullified by the 13th Amendment.

Direct Democracy

Form of government in which citizens vote directly on laws and policies.

House of Representatives

Lower chamber of Congress with membership based on state population.

Executive Branch

Branch of government that enforces laws, headed by the President.

Judicial Branch

Branch of government that interprets laws and reviews their constitutionality.

Schenck v. United States (1919)

Case establishing that speech posing a clear and present danger can be restricted.

Brandenburg v. Ohio (1969)

Decision protecting speech unless it is intended and likely to incite imminent lawless action.

Roth v. United States (1957)

Case ruling that obscene material is not protected by the First Amendment.

Miller v. California (1973)

Decision creating a three-part test to define obscenity.

District of Columbia v. Heller (2008)

Supreme Court case recognizing an individual right to possess firearms under the Second Amendment.

McDonald v. Chicago (2010)

Case applying Second Amendment gun rights to state and local governments through incorporation.

Free-Exercise Clause

First Amendment guarantee allowing individuals to practice any religion freely.

Establishment Clause

First Amendment prohibition on government establishment of religion or favoritism toward any faith.

Libel

Written defamation that is false and harms a person’s reputation.

Natural Rights

Inherent human rights to life, liberty, and property, as described by John Locke.

Senate

Upper chamber of Congress in which each state has two equal votes.

United States Constitution

1787 document establishing the framework, powers, and limits of the U.S. federal government.

Clear and Present Danger Test

Standard from Schenck determining when speech may be restricted for public safety.