Exam 1

Theory definition by Judee Burgoon

a set of systematic informed hunches about the way things operate.

Theories are an integrated system that

not only lays out multiple ideas, but also specifies the relationships among them.

Theories as nets

“Theories are nets to catch what we call the world… we endeavor to make the mesh finer and finer.” This metaphor suggests that theories help us understand reality by capturing and explaining complex phenomena. However, the stipulation of this metaphor is that theories can not contain every situation—there will often be exceptions that slip through.

Theories as lenses

The lens imagery highlights the idea that theories shape our perception by focusing attention on some features of communication while ignoring other features, or at least pushing them in the background. This perspective stipulates that nothing is entirely objective.

Theories as maps

Theories as maps provide a structured way to navigate complex ideas and relationships within a field, guiding researchers and practitioners in their understanding and exploration of various phenomena. They help identify key concepts, boundaries, and connections, allowing for clearer analysis and application. The stipulation with this metaphor is that maps can oversimplify reality and may not represent every nuance.

Communication

The relational process of creating and interpreting messages that elicit a response.

By asking additional survey questions about rel beliefs, peer norms, and parent disapproval, Jane Brown and colleagues were attempting to establish _____ in examining the relationship between sexy media diet and precoital sexual behavior.

Non-Spuriousness

Just by chance, results from even the most sophisticated polls of the population are never 100% accurate because of this

sampling error

A research decides to include a pre-test in her study of children’s ability to identify wild animals. While this will provide her with baseline data before she exposes them to the wildlife show, the kids may play closer attention to the animals because of the test. This bias is called:

hypothesis guessing

Lab experiments have higher ____ validity than field experiments

internal

The change in the response assoc

parameter estimate

Joe Bidens approval rating was estimated at 38% with a margin of error was ± 2 % which means the _________ was somewhere between 36% and 40%

population parameter

rather than acting naturally, participants in a lab study may act abnormally due to the knowledge theyare being watched

hawthorne effect

studies show more snapchat = less social support from friends

negative association

social cognitive theory has with

Choosing from options whichever best expresses ones intended message; ie. browsing Twitter after the Superbowl for a post to retweet that best expresses ones feelings.

Wesley Mclean Model

Greys Anatomy Content Analysis: Coders are instructed to observe and code cause of death as accidental, result of a crime, chronic illness, a medical mistake, or refusal of treatment. This is a ________ definition

operational

What type of sampling is it when a student focuses attention on Boston area for sampling because budget was limited and it was where she lived?

Non-probability / convenience sample

Individual differences and environmental factors are recognized as _____?

moderators

outdated communications theory/model that suggests mass media can directly inject messages into a passive audience, like a hypodermic needle, significantly influencing their thoughts and behaviors.

bullet hypodermic needle theory

rhetoricians believe truth is ________ through communication

socially constructed

HArrison et al (2006) found that when exposed to images with ____, male and female participants eating habits were similar to control group.

incongruent text—it distracted them from body image

this type of survey can establish that exposure to the independent variables occured before changes to the dependent variable in time. It establishes temporal precedence.

A longitudinal survey

by controlling when independent variable is manipulated and when to measure dependent variable, researchers maintain

temporal precedence

the process of inductive reasoning starts with ________ and process with making empirical generalizations.

observation

deductive reasoning starts with

a theory

when a study has the ability to generalize its findings at a larger scale, it has a lot of _____ _____.

external validtity

When training coders, researchers must ensure that there is a high level of….

Intercoder reliability

this method is used to counterbalance the unique characteristics of individuals when making groups from a sample population; prevents any differences or similarities from being the result of bias.

random assignment

when there is no treatment to a control group

empty control group

this type of survey only asks questions at one point in time

cross sectional

this set of rules governed “decency” in american films for decades

hayes code

instead of specifying a hypothesis, a researcher will sometimes pose a research question because previous findings have been_____.

inconclusive, conflicting

what is something you can never do to a hypothesis?

“prove”

A working definition of what the concept means for the purposes of investigation

Conceptual definition

An exact definition of how the content will be observed, measured, or manipulated in an empirical study

Operational definition

Which model is a one way transmission of information from source to destination?

Shannon-Weaver Model

Which communication model is interactive? aka both parties in a conversation fulfill the same functions.

Schramm Model

Which two communications models are considered linear?

Shannon-Weaver and Westley-MacLean

Which communications model displays the 3 consequences of exposure at the individual level (Cognitive (knowledge), Affective (emotional), and Behavioral effects).

Effects model

Which religious entity was responsible for examples of early communication censorship (banning books)?

Catholic church

Which modern-day country utilizes censorship to limit communication (press, content)?

China

How was historical ‘evidence’ limited in discovering relationships between communication and changes in behavior?

Had to refer to recorded opinions and/or large-scale societal effects. Only when effects were obvious and powerful in retrospect were they considered sound evidence.

Which two historical pieces of media were cited for their societal-level effects—supporting the now outdated “bullet” or “hypodermic needle” theories?

The Jungle by Upton Sinclair, and CBS’s broadcast of The War of the Worlds

______ _______ Evidence replaced Historical ‘Evidence’

Social Scientific

Social Scientific Evidence requires ________ and _________ examination of present conditions using scientific method.

empirical and systematic

What level does social scientific research usually focus on (societal or individual)?

individual by individual, until results can be applied to a larger set of population.

Which study from 1928 helped influence favor for “decency” laws regarding American films (Hayes Code)?

Payne Fund Studies

What are individual differences (like race, age, values, needs, attitudes) and environmental factors called in terms of how they can increase or decrease mass media effects?

moderators

What word is best associated with a “Rhetorician” comm scholar?

Subjective, Interpretive, or Qualitative

What word is best associated with a “Behavioral Scientist” comm scholar?

Objective, Quantitative

What type of reasoning presumes results with a theory and then attempts to verify theory with observation?

deductive

What type of reasoning makes observations and then develops theory based on patterns that emerge?

inductive

What makes a good theory (5 things)?

1. Predictive Power

2. Explanatory Power

3. Simplicity

4. Heuristic Value

5. Falsifiablility

What criteria of a theory allows us to make predictions about our world using observations/formulas?

predictive power

What criteria of a theory explains both the process and results?

explanatory power

What criteria of a theory requires that the explanation be reduced to its least complex form?

simplicity

Which criteria of a theory inspires future research/theorizing in different contexts and disciplines?

heuristic value

Which criteria of a theory demands that it be hypothetically possible for a test or observation to contradict the theory?

Falsifiability

Four criteria of a hypothesis?

1. testable prediction

2. about empirical reality

3. of the relationship between

4. two or more variables

Why would we ask a research question instead of stating a hypothesis?

No theory or previous research to guide prediction, or previous findings are conflicting/inconclusive

What are the three most common research designs in Comm Studies?

Content Analysis, Surveys, and Experiments

What are the 3 defining traits of Content Analysis?

quantitative, systematic, and objective

what makes content analysis quantitative?

spend days, weeks, months counting

what makes content analysis systematic?

including all relevant aspects, not just arbitrarily picking

what makes content analysis objective?

requiring all content to be treated the same way by multiple coders (operationalization)

Content analysis alone does not allow researchers to make any __________ ______ about the effects of exposure to such content/messages.

definitive claims

What is the content analysis approach when describing/quantifying what types of messages exist?

descriptive

What type of content analysis approach was used in the analysis of country music and references to alcohol?

descriptive

what type of content analysis application compares messages to other “real world” data sources?

comparative

What type of content analysis approach was used when analyzing criminal portrayals on TV versus real crime statistics?

comparative

what type of content analysis approach examines content trends over time?

historical

What type of content analysis approach was used in analyzing portrayal of infant feeding in magazine ads since the 1970s?

historical