CLASSICAL GREEK and Sparta

Polis

A city-state in Classical Greece, forming the core of the political system.

Synoikism

The process by which smaller villages come together to form a larger city or federation.

Acropolis

The inner fortress of a polis, usually containing the treasury and located on a fortified hill.

Agora

The center of public and economic activity in a polis, used for trade, religious ceremonies, and voting.

Hoplites

Heavily armored fighters, typically middle-class farmers, who formed the backbone of the Greek military.

Phalanx

A closed linear battle formation of closely packed hoplites with long spears and overlapping shields, requiring order and discipline.

Who qualified as an Athenian citizen?

Native-born, male, land or property owner, and at least 18-20 years old.

Who were considered Athenian residents?

Free persons, including foreigners and women, who were protected by laws but could not vote or hold office.

Who comprised the Athenian underclass?

Enslaved individuals, often those in debt or prisoners of war, without a racial/ethnic component to their status.

Arkhons

Athenian 'governors' who served one-year terms.

Boule (Athenian)

A powerful Athenian council, initially with 400 members representing four tribes, later expanded to 500 members chosen from 10 tribes.

Ekklesia (Athenian Assembly)

The body of all eligible citizens in Athens, which had collective power to vote on and propose policies.

Draco

An Athenian judge famous for composing the city's first harsh written law code, aimed at reducing arbitrary punishment and blood feuds.

Draconian

An adjective describing laws or punishments that are excessively harsh, derived from Draco's severe legal code.

What were key reforms introduced by Solon?

A one-time elimination of individual debts, freeing those enslaved for unpaid debts (Seisakhtheia), and dividing the populace into four wealth-based classes for representation in the Boule.

Seisakhtheia

Solon's reform that eliminated individual debts and freed those enslaved for unpaid debts.

Tyranny of Persistratidai

The period when Pisistratus and later his sons ruled Athens as despots after Solon left, eventually overthrown by marginalized groups and aristocracy.

Kleisthenes

An Athenian aristocrat and reformer who returned from exile to re-establish order, siding with common people and creating a new constitution.

What were the four main parts of Kleisthenes' new constitution?

Expansion of the Boule to 500 members (to end factionalism), all adult males becoming assembly members, introduction of ostracism, and establishing equality of laws and freedom of speech.

Ostracism

A practice introduced by Kleisthenes where citizens could vote to expel an individual for 10 years to prevent them from gaining too much power and becoming a tyrant.

What were the two basic principles of Athenian Democracy instituted by Kleisthenes?

No professional bureaucrats (nobody could serve on the council more than twice) and each citizen could hold office.

Lykourgos

The individual credited with setting up the Spartan form of government and the militarized Rhetra, cultivating a warrior society.

Rhetra

The general system and lifestyle of the Spartans, defined by strict adherence to the codes of their militaristic society.

Infanticide (Sparta)

The removal of unwanted baby children; in Sparta, male children deemed unfit were killed or cast off by elders at birth.

Agoge

The rigorous Spartan training system for boys, starting at age seven, focusing on hunting, military skills, and discipline.

Spartiates or Homoioi

Full Spartan citizens, also known as 'equals'.

Perioikoi

Spartan residents, meaning 'dwellers around', who were free persons but not full citizens.

Helots

Slave-like individuals in Sparta, legally tied to a piece of land they worked for someone else, outnumbering Spartiates.

Describe the Spartan government structure.

An oligarchy ruled by two hereditary kings (military and religious leaders) and more powerful Ephors (administrators), advised by the Gerousia (a council of 28 elders), and an Assembly of citizens who could vote but not propose policies.

What factors contributed to the decline of Sparta's population?

Men and women were kept separated, leading to lower reproduction rates; the Agoge system; and constant warfare.

Basileus

During Mycenaean times, village chieftains who evolved into royal kings or monarchs ruling city-states, eventually subordinated by Greek aristocracy.

Monarchy

A form of government characterized by the rule of one individual.

Aristocracy (Ancient Greece)

The 'rule of the best’ specifically by the best of the few citizens with the best intentions for the polis.

Oligarchy (Ancient Greece)

The 'rule of a few' or a handful of people, who often ruled for their own self-interests, not necessarily bad but always exclusive.

Tyranny (Ancient Greece)

Rule seized by an individual, usually through overthrow, where it did not always have negative connotations, often supported by previously marginalized people.

Democracy (Ancient Greece)

A form of government that could mean 'rule by mob' or 'tyranny of the majority', not always defined as the modern world defines it.

Polity

A form of government characterized by the 'rule of many,' also known as a republic.

What was the typical evolution of Greek government?

Kingship gave way to oligarchy, which gave way to tyranny, which finally gave way to democracy.

Ionian Revolt

A rebellion by Greek city-states in Asia Minor against Persian rule, supported by Athens and Eretria, which ultimately led to Persia's wrath against Greece.

Darius I

The Persian leader who sought to punish Greece for aiding the Ionian rebels, initiating the Persian Wars.

What was the significance and outcome of the Battle of Marathon?

An Athenian victory against a larger Persian force, led by Miltiades using the phalanx formation, which claimed Athenian superiority in Greece without Spartan help.

Miltiades

The general who led the Athenian defenses and commanded the Greeks to victory at the Battle of Marathon.

Xerxes

Darius I's son, who launched a massive land and sea force to avenge his father and conquer Greece in the Third Persian Invasion.

Describe the Third Persian Invasion.

Xerxes launched an immense force, crossing the Hellespont, leading many smaller Greek city-states to surrender immediately.

What happened at Thermopylai?

A small Greek army, including 300 Spartans led by Leonidas I, initially held off Xerxes and the Persians until a traitor revealed a way to bypass the Greek position, leading to a Persian victory.

Leonidas I

The Spartan king who led the 300 Spartans and other Greeks at the Battle of Thermopylai against the Persians.

What was the strategy and outcome of the Battle of Salamis?

The Greek navy, led by Themistokles, lured the Persian fleet into the Strait of Salamis and used tides to destroy most of the larger Persian fleet, forcing Xerxes to retreat.

Themistokles

The Greek naval leader and leader of the Delian League early on, famous for his strategy at Salamis, but later ostracized and ending up in Persia.

What was the outcome of the Battle of Plataiai?

The remaining Persian army, led by Mardonius, was decisively defeated by the combined Greek forces (Sparta, Athens, Corinth, etc.) led by the Spartan general Pausanias.

What were the main results of the Persian Wars?

Athens became the most powerful city-state, organized the Delian League, and slowly turned it into an Athenian Empire.

Delian League

A Greek naval alliance formed, initially with its treasury in Delos and led by Athens, which eventually transformed into an Athenian Empire as Athens dominated its allies.

Cimon

An Athenian leader who expanded trade, introduced the drachma currency, used the navy to intimidate league members, and was exiled after trying to make friends with Sparta.

Triremes

Fast and maneuverable Greek naval ships, powered by wind and human oars, with a battering ram used to sink other ships.

Demagogues (Ancient Greece)

Leaders who 'lead the mob' by creating new ways for less-elite citizens to participate in government, increasing democratic involvement.

Perikles

A prominent leader of Athens who guided the city through its 'Golden Age,' promoting direct democracy, developing kleroukhies, and beautifying Athens with Delian League funds.

Kleroukhies (Cleruchies)

Military and economic outposts established by Athens in the territory of its allies, often alienating them, a practice started by Perikles.

Funeral Oration (Perikles)

A famous speech recorded by Thucydides, delivered by Perikles, which is considered one of the earliest and greatest expressions of democratic ideals.

Long Walls (Athens)

Protective walls connecting Athens to its coastal city of Piraeus, ensuring access to supplies from the sea during sieges.

Peloponnesian League

An alliance formed by Sparta with city-states around the Peloponneseus, including Corinth, which encouraged oligarchy and rivaled the Delian League.

What problems did Sparta face leading up to the Peloponnesian War?

An earthquake destroyed the city leading to a helot revolt, and prominent generals were accused of aiding Persians.

Describe the general characteristics of the Peloponnesian War.

A 27-year-long, incongruent war between Athens (superior naval power) and Sparta (superior land power), with Athens initially having superior wealth but suffering from disease and confinement.

Archidamus II

The King of Sparta at the beginning of the Peloponnesian War, who invaded Attica and destroyed areas around Athens.

What was Athens' main strategy during the Peloponnesian War and its early consequence?

Perikles' strategy was to draw citizens from the hinterlands into the city behind the Long Walls, relying on naval food supply, but this proved costly due to a plague that killed one-third of the population, including Perikles.

Cleon

The Athenian leader who advocated for an offensive strategy against Sparta after Perikles' death, killed in battle in Thrace.

Nicias

The Athenian leader who favored peace and initiated the Peace of Nicias, a supposed 50-year peace agreement that only lasted three years.

Peace of Nicias

A flawed peace treaty between Athens and Sparta that was supposed to last 50 years but broke down in three due to Spartan unkept promises and Athenian allied non-agreement.

Alcibiades

Perikles' nephew, who convinced Athens to undertake the disastrous Sicilian Expedition, then defected to Sparta to avoid trial, revealing Athenian weaknesses.

Why was the Sicilian Expedition a disaster for Athens?

Despite initial success, it turned into total defeat with commanders killed or recalled, Spartan intervention turning the tide, and subsequent reinforcements being wiped out, with no Athenian soldiers returning.

How did Sparta gain Persian support during the Peloponnesian War?

Sparta concluded a treaty with Persia, where Persia supplied money for Sparta to buy ships, which was crucial for developing Spartan naval power.

Lysander

A capable Spartan commander who secured Persian funding for ships and led the decisive victory at the Battle of Aegospotomi.

Why was the Battle of Arginusae a turning point, even for an Athenian victory?

Athenian admirals were unable to rescue survivors after the battle due to a storm, violating tradition, leading to their condemnation and execution, removing Athens' experienced leaders.

What was the outcome of the Battle of Aegospotomi?

Spartan admiral Lysander destroyed the Athenian fleet, leading to Sparta attacking Athens with three armies, forcing Athens' surrender.

What were the terms of Athens' surrender at the end of the Peloponnesian War?

Athens was forced to disband the Delian League, destroy its protective Long Walls, burn remaining ships, and accept an oligarchy called the 30 Tyrants.

The 30 Tyrants

An oligarchy imposed by Sparta to rule Athens after its defeat in the Peloponnesian War.

What were the major turning points that were bad for Athens in the Peloponnesian War?

Death of Perikles, the failed Sicilian Expedition, defection of Alcibiades, Persian alliance with Sparta, defeat at Arginusae, and defeat at Aegospotomi.

What were the main results of the Peloponnesian War? Quiz hint know 3/4

Greece became a multi-polar system, democracy survived in Athens (after a civil war), Sparta declined because its social structure is not fit for the outside world, and Persia gained Greek cities in the east, becoming the real winner.

What was the significance of the Battle of Luektra?

Thebes, under General Epameinondas, defeated the Spartans, breaking the mystique of the Spartan warrior and signaling the end of Spartan power in Greece.

Epameinondas and the Sacred Band

The Theban general and his elite military unit who decisively defeated the Spartans at the Battle of Luektra.

Theban Hegemony

The period when Thebes seized hegemonic control of Greece after defeating Sparta, lasting until the arrival of the Macedonians.

Death of Perikles

Perikles' death from plague during the Peloponnesian War was bad for Athens because it removed their primary, experienced leader, leading to a void in effective wartime strategy and governance.

Failed Sicilian Expedition

The Failed Sicilian Expedition was disastrous for Athens because they lost two entire armies, all their soldiers, and all their ships, severely weakening their military and naval power.

defection of Alcibiades

The defection of Alcibiades was bad for Athens because he revealed Athenian weaknesses and aided Spartan strategy, thereby strengthening their enemy.

Persian alliance with Sparta,

The Persian alliance with Sparta was bad for Athens because Persia provided crucial funds to Sparta, enabling them to build a powerful navy. This directly threatened Athens' naval supremacy, which was vital for its defense and supply lines during the Peloponnesian War.

defeat at Arginusae

Despite being an Athenian victory, the Battle of Arginusae was detrimental because the subsequent execution of experienced admirals, who failed to rescue survivors due to a storm, severely depleted Athens' leadership.

defeat at Aegospotomi.

The defeat at Aegospotomi was disastrous because it led to the complete destruction of Athens' fleet, directly forcing its surrender and ending the Peloponnesian War with Athens defeated.