final combined (new stuff)

circulatory system fx

transportation: nutrients, glucose, metabolic wastes

regulation: hormones, temperature

protection: injury, clotting, pathogens, WBCs

open circulatory system

no distinction btwn body fluids and circulatory fluids.

hemolymph

drains back to the heart

closed circulatory system

completely separate circulatory fluid, blood is enclosed in vessels

fish circulatory system

2 chambers, efficient gills, systemic loop only

+: no mixing, gills (O2) → body

-: decrease BP + O2 delivery, ecothermic/regional endotherm

electrical impulse (SV)

amphibians circulatory system

3 chambers, double circulation

+: separate blood flow, higher BP

-: blood mixes, decreases O2 delivery, ectothermic

electrical impulse (SV)

non-croc reptiles circulatory system

3 chambers, double circ

+” partial separation

-: some blood mixing, shunting is used, ectothermic

crocs, birds, and mammals circulatory system

4 chambers, double loop

+: complete separation, conserves heat loss

-: increase metabolic rate, less efficient O2 exchange

homeothermic

atria

collect blood, returning to heart, small contraction

stretchy

atrioventricular valves

atria → ventricles

tricuspid (RA → RV)

mitral (LA → LV)

ventricles

contraction, move blood away, forceful contraction

muscular

semilunar valves

ventricles → vessels

pulmonary (RV → PA)

aortic (LV → aorta)

what determines heart rate?

sinoatrial node (pacemaker)

autonomic NS

electrical excitation

senatorial node fires, causes atria to contract, Aps spread to AV-node

AV node fires, impulses down myoseptum, causes ventricles to contract.

3 parts of an EKG

P wave: atrial contraction/depolarization

QRS complex: systole, ventricular contraction/depolarization

T wave: diastole, ventricular relaxation/repolarization

why is the T-wave positive?

inverts signal bc of way electrodes are placed on the body

regulation of heart rate

increases: cardioaccelerator, norepinephrine, sympathetic

decrease: cardioinhibitor, Ach, parasympathetic

regulation of blood pressure

baroreceptors (aortic arch and carotid arteries)

neg feedback

% breakdown of components of blood

55% plasma portion

45% cellular portion

what makes up the plasma portion of blood

water: salts, plasma proteins, electrolytes, fibrinogen

solvent: osmotic balance, pH buffering

what makes up the cellular portion of blood

erythrocytes: 4-6 mil/ul, O/CO2 trasnport

leukocytes: 5k-10k/ul, immune response

platelets: 250k-400k/ul, clotting

what is plasma?

95% water

transports: nutrients, waste, CO2, ions, hormones, proteins

what is erythropoietin?

stimulates RBC production, from bone marrow

describe an artery

more elastic, thicker smooth muscle, thinner CT

muscular for contraction

resistance to flow

describe a vein

few elastic layers, thin smooth muscle, thicker CT

less muscle and flexible

describe a capillary

1 cell thick, 1 mm in length, for exchange and absorption

greatest cross-sectional area

high blood pressure

hypertension

damages arteries and decreases elasticity

arrhythmias

irregularities in heart rate

bradycardia = slow

tachycardia = fast

congestive heart failure

not really failure, just diminished

a chronic condition that decreases circulation and causes fluid buildup

atherosclerosis

high BP and cholesterol, causes plaque formation and vessel blockage

requires bypass sx

myocardial infarctions

20% of all deaths in USA

coronary arteries blocked, myocardial cells die

strokes

brain blow blocked, partial paralysis of body

aneurysm

high blood pressure, ballooned arteries rupture

3 blood disorders/diseases

thalassemia: inherited anemia, insufficient hgb

pulmonary embolism: deep vein thrombosis, many causes

leukemia: blood cancer

what is anemia

low Fe²+ in blood, can be genetic (sickle cell)

hemolytic

what is passive diffusion?

movement of O2 and CO2 across membranes from an area of high to low concentration. does not require ATP

Fick’s low of diffusion equation and what each variable is

R = (DA ∆p)/d

R= diffusion rate

D= diffusion coefficient (molecule-specific)

A= surface area

∆p= pressure difference

d= diffusion difference

what are the best ways to optimize diffusion rate (R)?

increased surface areas (gills and lungs)

decrease diffusion distance (0.5mm limit, thickest possible)

increase concentration difference (constant water flow)

describe gills

specialized tissue projecting into water for O2 exchange. can be external and internal

ram ventilation vs buccal-opercular pump

ram ventilation: fish needs to constantly swim to force water over gills

BOP: water flows over gills, buccal ad opercular open, fill, and close

external vs internal gills

external: some fishes, some amphibians, vulnerable

internal: branchial, opercular, protected

describe cutaneous respiration

obligatory, facultative, occurs in mostly amphibians but some fishes and sea snakes. they have highly vascularized skin with dense capillaries close to the surface

components of atmospheric air

1 atm → 706 mmHg

78.09% nitrogen

20.95% oxygen

0.93% argon

0.03% CO2

parts of the tracheal system

spiracles (openings), trachea, tracheoles

describe paired lungs

transport air via internal tubes, air is saturated with moisture, exchange SA is very high

why were gills replaced with lungs?

due to gravity and lack of support, loss of water through thin tissue, higher O2 in air than water, and larger size

positive pressure breathing

amphibians, low SA, augmented with cutaneous

nostrils open, drops buccal floor as air comes in.

nostrils close, raises buccal floor, force air into lungs

negative pressure breathing

reptiles+mammals, higher surface area, thoracic cavity and muscle action.

volume inverse 1/pressure

describe avian lungs and air sacs

lungs: 1-way movement, only fresh air, very efficient with high metabolic rate

parabronchi: gas exchange center, 2 breath cycle

air sacs: hold air, no exchange, complete respiration

2 ‘structure types’ in mammalian respiratory system

conduction: move/filter/warm air, no exchange (nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles)

exchange: alveoli

describe alveoli

have high surface area due to being a gas exchange center. very sensitive

over 300 million, 80m² surface area

2 cells thick

process of inhalation

• External intercostal and diaphragm contract

• Thoracic volume increases, pressure decreases

  • Creates negative pressure

• Air passes into lungs due to pressure difference

• Thorax and lungs -> elastic tension

process of exhalation

• External intercostal and diaphragm relax

• Elastic tension is released (V decreases, P increases)

  • Non-forced exhalation

• Abdominal muscles may forcibly contract

  • Produce greater exhalation

what drives breathing rate?

PCO2, NOT PO2

hypoventilation: (^ PCO2)

hyperventilation: (- PCO2)

fx affecting binding affinity

pigment type, temperature, pH, CO2, loading vs unloading

what is binding affinity

ability to hold O2

P50 = 50% saturated

hemoglobin vs myoglobin

hemoglobin: RBC’s, 4 heme groups w/ 4 Fe atoms. oxy and deoxy

myoglobin: muscle cells, 1 Fe atom, high BA, marine mammals

blood oxygen (venous vs alveolar vs arterial)

venous

• P O2 = 40 mmHg

• P CO2 = 46 mmHg

alveolar

• P O2 = 105 mmHg

• P CO2 = 40 mmHg

arterial

• P O2 = 100 mmHg

• P CO2 = 40 mmHg

transport of CO2

10% dissolve sinto plasma

30% binds to HGB

60% carbonic anhydrase

upper respiratory infections

flu, common cold, Epstein-Bar, pertussis, and strep throat

laryngitis, sinusitis, tonsilitis

lower respiratory infections

bronchitis, pneumonia, TB

viral and bacterial

chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD)

long term obstruction of air ways

chronic bronchitis, asthma, and emphysema

asthma

genetic and environmental, allergen, histamines causing airway constriction

dilators/anti-inflammatory

effects 1:11 children and 1:12 adults

emphysema

lungs become fibrotic, lose elasticity and the alveoli breakdown

caused by smoking, 90% deaths

black lung

pneumoconiosis. not genetic

effected coal miners and caused scarring in lungs, difficulty talking.

lung cancer

majority of cancer deaths, originates in bronchi and metastasizes quickly. 3% survival after metastasis

cough w/ blood, chronic cough

smoking

mesothelioma

pleura of lungs

caused by asbestos exposure

types of skeletons

hydrostatic: soft-bodied, fluid filled cavities, jellies and squids and earthworms and slugs.

• +: flexible, cushion, low weight. // -: desiccation, little support or connections

exoskeleton: rigid hard case, arthropods (chiton), internal muscle attachment

• +: resist desiccation, protection // -: must molt to grow, weights more, vulnerable to predation

endoskeleton:echinoderms, vertebrates, collagen, cartilage, ligaments, tendons

• +: protect internal organs, Ca and P reserves // -: susceptible to disease, no external protection

endoskeleton fx

protection: organs

muscle attachment: support ant movement

living tissue: produce RBC/WBC, remodel from stress

mineral storage: Ca and P

human axial skeleton

central axis: skull, sternum, rib cage

vertebral column: C7, T12, L5, S5, Cx4. intervertebral discs

human appendicular skeleton

pectoral girdle for forelimb and hindlimb

types of bones

long: humerus and femur, diaphysis and epiphyses

short: cuboidal, carpels and tarsals

flat: thin and broad, organ protection, sternum and ribs

irregular: complex shapes, vertebrae and hips

sesamoid: small and flat, patellae

structural: small and flat, irregular, skull bones

bone tissue

bones are organs, have blood, CT, nerves BT

compact bone: cortical bone, hard external all bones, surround medullary cavity, prot and strength

spongy bone: cancellous bone, no estrous, form blood cells, trabecular and bone marrow

bone cells and fx

osteoblasts: lay down new bone, collagen and hydroxyapatite

osteoclasts: dissolve old bone, multinucleate cells, derived leukocytes, breakdown bone matrix

mesenchyme: undifferentiated, C/ST, loosely organized

osteocytes + osteons

osteocytes: trapped osteoblasts, living bone cells

lacunae: tight spaces, house osteoblasts

canaliculi: canals connecting lacunae, allows osteocytes to communicate

Haversian canal: central canal, contains blood vessels for osteon

ossification

ossification: osteogenesis, bone formation, not calcification

intramembranous: fibrous membranes, start= mesenchymal cells end= flat bones, mandible

endochondral: hyaline cartilage, start= chondrocytes. end= all other bones

bone growth

growth plate = epiphyseal plate

ossifies (growth ends), based on age, growth hormone disorders can occur (Messi)

bone remodeling

repeated steps thickens in response, prevents fractures, may fracture near

structural joints

fibrous: w/ fibrous CT, no cavity or space or movement, sutures of skull

syndesmosees: bands of CT, no cavity or space, some movement, gomphoses and teeth

cartilaginous: no vanity or space, very little movement, hyaline cartilage, vertebrae

synovial: space between bones, fluid lubricates joint, ends covered w/ hyaline. hip, ankle, elbow, atlas-axis

types of muscle

skeletal: voluntary, striated, multinucleated, myofilaments

cardiac: self initiating, striated, 1 nucleate, heart only

smooth: involuntary, non-striated, 1 nucleate

muscle contraction

sarcomere: smallest working subunit of muscular contraction

tropomyosin (TPM): found actin, blocks binding sites

troponin (TPN): found on actin and TPM, holds actin and TPM

Ca²+: low= TPM inhibits cross-bridge, blocks binding sites. high= TPN changes conformation, exposes binding sites

neuromuscular synapse, muscle contraction

exocytosis: Ach released, Ach binds

T-tubule: depolarizese

sarcoplasmic reticulum: sotres Ca²+

depolarization: releases Ca²+, causes muscular contraction

Ca²+: back into SR, stops MC

sliding filament theory

sliding of myofilaments to contract sarcomeres

2 types of skeletal muscle fibers

fast twitch: white muscle, lower capillary supply and mitochondria and myoglobin, anaerobic respiratory enzymes

slow twitch: opposite of fast

osteoporosis

chronic low Ca, bone breaks easily, constantly remodeling

osteoarthritis

cartilage degrades, bones grind

rickets/osteomalacia

vitamin D deficiency, bowing/soft bones

fractures of bones

type → stres/strain

compound is worse

muscular dystrophy

genetic; Ab-dev

heart/resp failure

non-ambulatory

myositis

rare; inflammation

muscle weakness

sarcoma

soft tissue cancer, rare

no known causes

neuron, sensory, motor

neuron: nerve cell, specialized to transmit nerve impulses

sensory: afferent, sensory cell → CNS

motor: efferent, CNS → motor effector

types of neurons

unipolar: 1 structure, away from soma, insects only

bipolar: 1 dendrite 1 axon terminal, retinal cells

multipolar: most common, CNS, branching dendrites, cerebral Purkinje cells

pseudo unipolar: 1 process away, process branches, most sensory neurons

neurons fx

dendrites: receive info

cell body: produce neurotransmitters

axon: transmit info

synaptic terminals: release neurotransmitters

myelin sheath: insulate transmission (speed)

nodes of ranvier: impulse conduction (speed)

types of receptors + fx

photo: vision

mechanic: tactile, auditory

chemo: olfactory, gustatory

thermo

baro: blood pressure

Schwann cells vs Oligodendrocytes

SC: PNS, myeline one neuron

O: CNS, myeline multiple neurons

Astrocytes

CNS; with capillaries and neurons, nourish and regulate [ion[, structural support of synapse, form BBB

peripheral macrophages

PNS; recycle/repair damaged cells, microorganism protection

satellite glia

PNS; nutrients + structure

radial glia

CNS; scaffolding, guide developing neurons

ependymal

CNS; line fluid-filled cavities, cerebrospinal fluid homeostasis, clearance of waste