henry vii’s foreign policy

what are the key types of question that can be asked about henry vii’s foreign policy?

• most important aim in foreign policy

• extent of success of foreign policy

• causes of england’s expanding trade and prosperity

• extent of henry failing/succeeding to achieve his aims in foreign policy

what are the 4 key themes of henry’s foreign policy?

• securing the dynasty

• prestige and legitimacy

• avoid expensive wars

• trade

as an overview, what were henry’s policies?

• defensive → sought alliances to secure his own position and for best interests of england

  • reacted in external events

• prioritised security over trade

• was pragmatic, realism was henry’s virtue, driven out of necessity

what was england’s international position like in 1485?

isolated, weak, minor power with an unknown, lesser respected king

what was england’s foreign position like by 1509?

• ultimately achieved foreign policy goals

• england became recognised internationally

• dynasty secure with succession of henry viii and unchallenged from removal of yorkist threat

summary of stage 1: 1485-1492 developing diplomacy

• priority was to eliminate yorkist threats to usurp him

• signed temporary truces with potential enemies at very beginning of reign

• approached 1487-92 breton crisis with cautious

• showed aggression to france in order to assert authority and legitimacy

• secured an important marriage alliance with spain → 1489 treaty of medina del campo

what truces did henry make to minimise international threats to england after bosworth 1485?

• 1485 - ONE year truce with france (later extended to 1489)

• 1486 - THREE year truce with scotland

• 1486 - trade treaty with brittany (tested by Margaret of burguny’s support for simnel and warbeck

• 1487 - renewed a peace treaty with the holy roman empire

what was the impact of the 1487 lambert simnel uprising?

• weakened relations between england and burgundy → margaret of burgundy was a vehement yorkist (sister to richard iii) continuously supported yorkist pretenders

  • burgundy had been england’s ally in hundred years’ war AND was main outlet for english cloth

  • threat of rebels was ended by their defeat at the battle of stoke but the truce with burgundy was tested

• henry became aware of how vulnerable he was to attack of neighbours → served as a reminder to continue to ensure security abroad

when was the breton crisis?

1487 - 1492

how did the 1497-92 breton crisis start?

• french wanted charles viii to marry duke francis of brittany’s daughter anne

  • secures french control of brittany which had previously been semi-independent

• duke arranged for anne to marry emperor maximilian of HRE

• france was provoked and sent an army to brittany

• maximilian sent 1500 men to support brittany and ferdinand of aragon sent 1000

why was henry conflicted in his response to the 1487-92 Breton Crisis?

• had been protected by duke francis of brittany during 14 year exile and owed him his loyalty in thanks

• didn’t want france to control the southern side of the english channel → would make them vulnerable in the south to french invasion - close proximity to london

HOWEVER

• couldn’t afford an aggressive policy that had potential to evolve into warfare → crown near bankrupt from the war of the roses and hundreds year war → french was more powerful (£800,000 NI in comparison to £113,000 NI)

how did henry intially attempt to get involved with the 1497-92 Breton crisis?

• undertook role of mediator to hopefully reach a peace agreement between france and brittany

• attempted to compromise with 500 men sent to brittany (hoped gesture of support enough to show loyalty to brittany, not significant enough to anger the french)

how did the 1487-92 breton crisis end?

• 1488 - brittany defeated in battle by france, subsequent peace treaty arrangement with duke signing treaty with french king

• three weeks after signing treaty, duke francis died→ anne became the duchess of brittany, french annexation imminent

• henry attempted diplomacy to stop recurrence of crisis → 1489 treaty of redon where brittany paid for henry to send 6000 men to their aid

• december 1491 - charles viii married anne of brittany and bretons accepted loss of independence

after december 1491 marriage of charles and anne, what dilemma did henry face?

• accept the loss of brittany, look weak and allow france to expand their control of the channel

  OR

• launch an invasion to force charles viii to leave brittany → would assert english strength but had potential to expand into an expensive conflict

how did henry manipulate the end of the breton crisis for his own foreign policy gain?

• chose to take an aggressive, offensive stance to look strong and boost prestige, declared intention to claim the french throne to pressurise into a lucrative peace agreement

• october 1492 - 26,000 men besieged boulogne granted by 2 parliamentary subsidies

• was in france for 9 days before charles offered peace agreement → 1492 Treaty of Etaples

  • avoided a costly war

why was the 1492 treaty of etaples a success?

• charles viii promised to not support yorkist rebels → warbeck’s support reduced

• henry would receive french pension → £5000 p/a, formed approx 5% of england’s annual income

• henry able to assert himself in continental affairs → boosts england’s prestige

• effort made to restore trade, lifting restrictions for merchants like the merchants of the table who traded out of calais

  • achieved equal trade by 1497

what were the terms of the 1489 treaty of medina del campo?

• united over a common enemy of france

• 1488 - arranged a betrothal between prince arthur (aged 2) and catherine of aragon (aged 3)

  • henry secured promise of what would be a substantial dowry

  • spain now had a vested interest in maintaining the power of england, wanted them to be as strong of an ally possible → promised not to support yorkist rebels

• both had guaranteed to support the other if entering a conflict with france → acted as deterrant to avoid expensive war with france

• ended commercial rivalry → favourable terms secured for english traders, now had access to to iberian and new world ports

how did spain become a major power?

• isabella of castile and ferdinand or aragon wed in 1469 → unified spain who emerged as major power

which of henry’s actions could be used to signify that the 1489 treaty of medina del campo was a success?

• henry issued a new coin in celebration - gold sovereign - bore image of himself wearing an imperial crown

  • treaty MDC served as another step in establishing legitimacy through allegiance and protecting dynasty, hoped marriage would produce future heirs

what are the best pieces of evidence to display success of policy for the 4 themes of henry’s foreign policy?

• securing the tudor dynasty → 1492 treaty of etaples

• prestige & legitimacy → 1488 betrothal from treaty of medina del campo

• avoiding expensive wars → 1492 treaty of etaples → managed to make a profit from peace

• expanding trade → etaples or MDC, all benefitted trade

what was henry’s main aim in the first stage of his foreign policy?

maintaining and continuing to reinforce the stability of the dynasty → 1485 - had no heir, lacking in funds from near bankruptcy after the Hundred years’ war and the war of the roses. lacked necessary prestige due to being seen as an unknown usurper king internationally, appearing weak and vulnerable in aftermath of takeover

what circumstances led to the implementation of the 1496 intercursus magnus?

• burgundy controlled the ports of the netherlands e.g. antwerp and bruges → main trading posts for english exports

• margaret of burgundy was leading upholder of the yorkist cause (sister of richard iii) → deteriorated relations

• margaret continued to support yorkist pretenders, including perkin warbeck

• 1492 - 95 trade embargo on english trade with burgundy as a consequence for her support

• once warbeck left burgundy, henry and philip of burgundy discussed for the trade treaty

what is the 1492-95 trade embargo a good example of?

• henry’s continuous prioritisation of securing the dynasty over developing trade, was willing to sacrifice revenue to continue to protect claim to the throne and the succession

who did the 1496 intercursus magnus benefit the most?

• the merchant adventurers, traded out of london to antwerp primarily → one of largest trading companies in england

  • restored normal trading links between the two and brought prosperity for english traders

why did england join the anti-french holy league in 1496?

• requirement of signing the intercursus magnus 1496 w/ burgundy in order to maintain relations

despite the risk, how did henry use the obligation to join the holy league to his advantage?

• given opportunity to further assert himself into continental affairs → alliances further provided legitimacy and improved england’s international standing

• able to become familiar with the pope, ferdinand of spain, emperor maximilian and the leaders of venice and milan

  • form relations over aiming to drive charles viii of france out of italy

• bypasses risk to negotiations with france for equal trade treaty by ensuring he was never obliged to go to war with france (avoided costly war)

how did warbeck’s impact on foreign policy prove such a threat?

• long term enduring threat, surviving off financial backing from wealthy european nations

• jeopardised marriage of arthur to catherine of aragon

• staunched trading with burgundy → needed to provide incentive for margaret of burgundy to stop supporting warbeck

how did henry govern ireland? how was this successful in ensuring the security of the dynasty?

• initially used the earl of kildare to act as lord deputy of ireland to convene between ‘the pale’ and the independent chiefs → had yorkist sympathies and supported simnel and warbeck → crowned simnel king of england in the streets of dublin

• henry appointed infant prince Henry as lieutenant of ireland with sir edward poynings as deputy

• poynings had moderate success. → poyning’s law implemented 1495 but VERY expensive

• kildare reinstated as deputy, no longer maintained allegiances for the yorkist abuse and served loyally for remainder of his reign, some peaeful authority maintained

what concurrent events led to the 1497 truce of ayton?

• james iv continually supported the perkin warbeck rebellion, hoped to undermine henry → posed threat due to close geography and border

• warbeck stayed on james’ court for 2 years, support from scottish nobility legitimised warbeck’s claim

• 1496 - james encouraged warbeck to cross border into england → anticipated by henry who raised parliamentary tax to fund an army to head north → 1497 cornish rebellion

what was the benefits of the 1497 treaty of ayton?

• recognised need to improve relations with scotland → fighting warbek and cornish rebels too costly

• became full treaty after warbeck’s execution 1499

• sealed by marriage of james iv tto princess margaret in 1503

• first such peace treaty since 1328

• truce held for henry’s life time and would lead to ultimate union of england and scotland

what deaths acted as a turning point in henry’s foreign policy?

• 1502 - prince arthur

• 1503 -elizabeth of york

• 1504 - isabela of castile

how did the deaths of the wives of henry and ferdinand of aragon impose strain on foreign relations?

• became rivals in search for a new wife

• related instability in spain from who would take us today of castile → inherited by joanna who allowed husband philip of burgundy to add title to his own, father not allowed to at as regent

• weakened henry’s main ally of spain from 1489 treaty of medina del campo

• two allies of england pitted against each other → would have to make a choice, chose burgundy over spain

how did henry initiate efforts to improve relations with burgundy?

• lent philip money to launch an expedition to secure castile

• began to seek a french of burgundian wife for prince henry instead of catherine of aragon

what were the terms of the 1506 treaty of windsor?

• created through philip being forced to shelter in england after violent storm at sea

• philip promised to hand over remaining yorkist threat → edmund de la pole, earl of suffolk

• prince henry would marry philip’s sister

• youngest daughter mary would marry archduke charles

• malus intercursus signed → allowed english merchants greater access to burgundian markets

what problem did the 1506 treaty of windsor have?

• proposed marriages never made it into fruition alongside the extent of extended english access into burgundian markets

how did relations with spain continue to deteriorate?

• ferdinand formed an alliance with louis xii of france in retaliation to england’s closer relations with burgundy

• when philip of burgundy died 1506 → joanna (his wife, inherited castile from mother isabela) was declared insane and ferdinand was able to take over castile

• when henry pursued a marriage with newly divorced joanna, was quickly refused

• marriage of prince henry to catherine of aragon was also refused

what perspectives can be taken in regards to the exclusion from the league of cambrai 1508?

• positive, success for foreign policy → remained on good terms with nations in the league and was able to avoid involvement in conflict with the ottoman empire and venetian states

• negative, failure for foreign policy → contributed to increasing exclusion from european politics and acted as a limitation of england’s power