Anatomy and Physiology Exam 2 full content: Histology and Bones

fibroblast (immature), Fibrocyte (mature)

What are the immature and mature cell names for connective tissue proper?

chondroblast (immature, chondrocyte (mature)

What are the immature and mature cell names for cartilage?

osteoblast (immature), osteocyte (mature)

What are the immature and mature cell names for bone?

hematopoietic stem cell (immature), Macrophage (mature)

What are the immature and mature cell names for blood?

Loose

• areolar

• adipose

• reticular

Dense

• regular

• irregular

• elastic

What are the subcategories of connective tissue proper?

provides reserved fuel, insulates against heat lost and supports and protects organs. found in kidneys, eyeballs, breasts and primarily under the skin in subcutaneous tissue

what is the function of adipose tissue?

supports other cell types like lymphocytes, mast cells, and macrophages. found in lymph nodes, spleen and bone marrow

What is the function of reticular tissue?

attaches muscle to bones and other muscles, withstands tensile strength. found in tendons, ligaments etc.

What is the function of dense regular connective tissue?

withstands tension exerted in many directions and provides structural strength. found in fibrous capsules in joints.

what is the function of dense irregular connective tissue?

allows tissue to recoil after stretching. found in large arteries, ligaments in the vertebral column and in the lungs.

What is the function of dense elastic tissue?

• hyaline

• elastic

• fibrocartilage

What are the three types of cartilage?

supports and reinforces, resilient cushion against constant stress. found in embryonic skeletons, end of long bones and joint cavities

what is the function of hyaline cartilage?

maintains shape of a structure while allowing flexibility. found in the ears, and epiglottis

What is the function of Elastic cartilage

tensile strength absorbs compressive shock. found intervertebral discs, pubic bone, meniscus

what is the function of fibrocartilage?

supports and protects, provides levers for muscles, stores calcium and other minerals. located in bones.

What is the function of Osseous tissue?

• mucus

• serous

• cutaneous

• synovial

What are the 4 types of membranes?

secretes mucus to lubricate. found in hollow opening exposed to the outer world

What is the function and locations of mucus membranes?

lines the internal subdivisions of the ventral body cavity.

What is the function and locations of serous membranes?

covers the surface of the body. Thick and waterproof.

what is the function and location of cutaneous membranes?

found in synovial joints to provide cushioning between bones and aid the menisci.

what is the function and location of the synovial membranes?

• highly vascular

• highly cellular

• responsible for most types of body movement

• possess myofilaments which cause movement

What are the 4 features of muscle tissue?

neurons and neuroglia

what are the two major cell types of nervous tissue?

inflammation and regeneration

what are the two types of tissue repair?

inflammation has components of both negative and positive feedback loops

what type of feedback mechanism is inflammation?

• supports

• protection

• assistant in moving

• mineral homeostasis

• blood cell production

• triglyceride storage

What are the 6 main functions of the skeletal system

• bones

• cartilage

• tendons

• ligaments

what are the 4 components of the skeletal system

Diaphysis

What is the shaft t of a long bone called?

epiphysis

What are the proximal and distal ends of the bone called?

metaphysis

What is the region between the epiphysis and the diaphysis called?

periosteum

what is the 2 outermost layers of the long bone called?

endosteum

what is the internal lining of a long bone called?

medullary cavity

what is the tube in the diaphysis called that reduces the weight of the long bone?

• osteoprogenitor cells

• osteoblasts

• osteocytes

• osteoclasts

What are the 4 cells present in bone tissue

interstitial lamellae

the area between neighboring osteons

lacunae

the space where osteons are found

canaliculi

nutrient channels filled with extracellular fluid

appositional growth and interstitial growth

What are the two ways in which cartilage grows?

appositional growht

cartilage forming cells in the surrounding perichondrium secrete new matrix against the existing matrix

interstitial growth

chondrocytes divide and secrete new matrix, expanding the cartilage from within (mitosis)

1. initial formation of bone (from hyaline cartilage)

2. growth of bone during development (occuring at growth plates during puberty)

3. remodeling of bone

4. bone repair

what are the four stages of ossification

• intramembranous ossification

• endochondral ossification

what are the two methods in which osteogenesis occurs

intramembranous ossification

development of bone beginning in the ~8th week of fetal development

1. development of an ossification centre through the fibrous connective tissue membrane

2. osteoid is secreted and calcified

3. immature spongy bone and periosteum form

4. compact bone replaces superficial spongy bone, red bone marrow develops

what are the steps of intramembranous ossification?

endochondral ossification

development of bone occuring after the 9th week of fetal development and continuing throughout puberty

1. bone collar forms around the diaphysis of the hyaline cartilage

2. cartilage calcifies in the centre of the diaphysis creating cavities

3. the periosteal bud invades the central cavity creating spongy bone

4. elongation of the diaphysis, medullary cavity develops and secondary ossification of the epiphyses occurs (occurs at or around the time of birth)

5. ossification is complete at the epiphyses and hyaline cartilage only remains at the epiphysial plates

What are the steps of endochondral ossification

1. interstitial growth of cartilage on the epiphyseal side of the epiphyseal plate

2. replacement of cartilage on the diaphyseal side through endochondral ossification

What two events happen to create bone growth throughout adolescence

cartilage on the epiphyseal side undergoes mitosis whereas cartilage on the diaphyseal side dies and is replaced with bone

What is the difference between ossification at the epiphyseal side and the diaphyseal side

1. osteoblasts beneath the periosteum secrete collagen fibres creating the bone matrix and forms ridges that follow the blood vessels in the periosteum

2. bony ridges enlarge and the groove containing blood vessels becomes a tunnel

3. the periosteum lining the tunnel is transformed into the endosteum and osteoblasts secrete bone matrix to narrow the canal

4. osteoblasts deep in the endosteum form lamellae and this process is repeated to enlarge bone diameter

what are the stages of appositional growth?

1. bone resorption- removal of minerals and collagen fibres by osteoclasts (increases blood calcium)

2. bone deposition- the addition of materials and collagen fibres by osteoblasts

What are the two processes of bone remodeling?

• minerals

  • calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, flouride, manganese

• vitamins

  • A,C,D and K

• hormones

  • IGF’s, HgH, T3 and T4, PTH

• mechanical stress

  • wolf’s law

what are some factors that influence bone development?

Interstitial growth

What type of growth elongates the bone?

Appositional growth

what type of growth widens the bone?

1. hematoma develops

2. fibrocartilaginous callus forms

3. bony callus forms from fibrocartilage

4. bone remodeling occurs

What are the steps of fracture repair?

• osteomalacia and rickets

• osteoporosis

• Paget’s disease

What are the three major bone disorders?

• excessive bone resorption

• inadequate bone remodeling

What are the two main mechanisms in which osteoporosis develops

• lack of estrogen

• calcium metabolism

What are the two main factors of osteoporosis risk?

• lumbar spinal fractures

• hip fracture

• wrist fractures

What are the most common effects of osteoporosis?

the anterior fontanel

What is the largest fontanel that takes the most time to close?

the male pelvis is more dense and thicker with sharper ridges on the ilium. The female pelvis has a greater angle between to pubis to allow for childbirth

What are some of the differences between the male and female pelvis?

arthrology

What is the study of joints called?

• fibrous

• cartilaginous

• synovial

What are the three structural classifications of joints?

Fibrous joint

What is the strongest type of joint?

Synovial joints

What type of joint has a cavity between the two articulating bones?

• synarthrosis (no movement)

• amphiarthrosis 

• Diarthrosis (synovial joints)

what are the three functional classifications?

a joint held together by a ligament

What is a syndesmosis fibrous joint?

in between the bones of the skull

where is the only place in the body that suture joints are present?

bones joined by hyaline cartilage such as in the epiphyseal plate

what is a synchondroses cartilaginous joint?

bones joined by fibrocartilage such as in the vertebral column and the pubic symphysis (found at the midline of the body)

What is a symphyses cartilaginous joint?

preventing twisting and torsion at the joint, lowering risk of dislocation

What role does the fibrous layer serve in a synovial joint?

releases synovial fluid into the joint cavity

what role does the synovial membrane serve in a synovial joint?

• reduces friction through lubrication

• shock absorbent

• supplies oxygen and nutrients

• removes carbon dioxide and waste

• contains phagocytes to remove debris

What are the 5 functions of synovial fluid?

the ACL and PCL

What are two examples of intracapsular accessory ligaments in the knee joint?

Bursae act as cushioning sacs between bones and soft tissues, reducing friction during movement.

What role does bursae play in a joint?

tendon sheaths are long tube like sacs that are filled with fluid and wrapped around the head of the bone, providing a cushion between bones.

how does a tendon sheath reduce friction between bones?

• plane (gliding)

  • found in between the carpals

• hinge

  • knee

• pivot

  • in between the ulna and radius to allow supination

• condylar

  • in between phalanges and metacarpals

• saddle

  • found in thumb

• ball and socket

  • hip and shoulder joint

What are the types of synovial joints and an example in the body?

1. type of articulating bones

2. Strength of the ligaments

3. Arrangement of muscles

4. Contact of soft parts

5. Hormones

6. Disuse

What are some factors that influence range of motion of in a joint?

any disorder that affects the joints

What is arthritis?

a type of arthritis caused by the break down of smooth cartilage causing pain at the joints

What is osteoarthritis?

autoimmune disease which attacks the synovial joint cavity

what is rheumatoid arthritis?

inflammatory arthritis caused by high levels of uric acid in the blood causing crystalization at the joint

What is gouty arthritis