Child & Adolescent Development (PSYD 732) -- Midterm

Life Expectancy

the number of years that the average person born in a particular year will probably live, currently in the US today it is 79 years old

Life Span

he upper boundary of life, which is the maximum number of years an individual can live, currently in the US today it is about 120 years old

Normative Age-Graded Influences

influences that are similar for individuals in a particular age group (eg puberty in teens, retirement is usually in 50/60s)

Normative History-Graded Influences

influences that are common to people of a particular generation because of historical circumstances (eg Great Depression, invention of internet)

Non-Normative Life Events

unusual occurrences that have a major impact on an individual's life (eg death of a parent during early childhood, winning the lottery)

What are the periods of child development, and when do they occur?

Prenatal: conception to birth

Infancy: birth to 2 years

Early childhood: 2 to 5 years

Middle childhood: 6 to 11 years

Adolescence: puberty (12 years) to adulthood

Microsystem

individual's immediate environment, people the child interacts with daily so the relationship are bidirectional

Mesosystem

relationships and interaction between microsystem (eg parents and educators)

Exosystem

environments individual is not an active participant in but it impacts them (eg government politics, mass media, parents workplace)

Macrosystem

broader society and cultural forces (eg social norms, values, cultural beliefs)

Chronosystem

the role of time, life transitions (eg historical events, birth of a sibling, parental divorce)

Evolutionary Psychology

emphasizes adaptation, reproduction, and survival of the fittest in shaping behavior

Evolution explains human physical features and behaviors

DNA

complex molecule with a double helix shape, contains genetic information

Genes

basic units of hereditary information, short engagement of the DNA strand, directs cells to reproduce and assemble proteins

Chromosomes

threadlike structures located in the nucleus of each human cell, made up of DNA

Human Genome Project

has led to the use of the genome-wide association method to identify genetic variations linked to a particular disorder, learned that humans have only about 30,000 genes so now we know that the activity of genes is affected by their environment and can be "turned on and off"

Define genotype and phenotype

Genotype: The combination of genes for one or more specific traits

Phenotype: An organism's appearance or other detectable characteristic

Define dominant and recessive genes

Dominant Genes = overrides the expression of the recessive gene

Recessive Gene = exerts its influence only if both genes in the pair are recessive

X-linked Inheritance

females are carriers while males may exhibit an X-linked disease

Down's Syndrome

trisomy 21, extra chromosome that causes mild to severe intellectual disability and physical abnormalities

Klinefelter's Syndrome

XXY, male has extra Y chromosome

Turner's Syndrome

affects females who have one or both X chromosomes missing or partially deleted

Huntington's Disease

chronic, inherited disease that causes nerve cells in the brain to deteriorate and die

Phenylketonuria

inherited metabolic disorder that prevents the body from breaking down phenylalanine

Behavior Genetics

seeks to discover the influence of heredity and environment on individual differences in human traits and development

Twin Studies

studies in which the behavior similarity of identical twins is compared with the behavioral similarity of fraternal twins

How can heredity and environment be connected?

Individuals genes may influence environments to which they are exposed, some environments can mute or strengthen genetic traits, and as children age their experiences extend beyond family

Passive Genotype-Environment Correlation

children inherit genetic traits from their parents and parents also provide an environment that match their own genetic tendencies

Evocative Genotype-Environment Correlation

the child's genetic tendencies elicit stimulation from the environment that supports a particular trait, thus genes evoke environmental support (eg cooperative and attentive children receive more positive instructions)

Active Genotype-Environment Correlation

niche picking, children seek out environments they find compatible and stimulation, which reinforces genetic predisposition

Shared Environmental Experiences

siblings' common experience (eg parents' personalities or family SES)

Non-Shared Environmental Experiences

child's own unique experiences, both within and outside of family, not shared by siblings (experiences occurring within the family may be part of non-shared environment)

Epigenetic View

emphasize that development is the result of an ongoing, bidirectional interchange between heredity and environment

How long is human prenatal development?

Last for approximately 266 days, beginning with fertilization and ending with birth

What are the three periods of human prenatal development?

Germinal, Embryonic, and Fetal

Germinal Period

0-2 weeks, creation of a fertilized egg, cell division, attachment of zygote to uterine wall (implantation)

Embryonic Period

2-8 weeks, rate of cell differentiation intensifies, organogenesis

Fetal Period

2 months to birth, fetus is viable at about 6 months

What are the most important stages of neural development during the prenatal period?

development of neural tube, neurogenesis, neural migration, and neural connectivity

Neural Tube

the nervous system begins forming as a long hollowed tube located on the embryo's back

Neurogenesis

once the neural tube has closed at both ends, a massive proliferation of new immature neurons begins to take place at about week 5

Neural migration

at 15 weeks, cells begin moving outward from their point of origin to their appropriate levels, creating different levels, structures, and regions of the brain

Neural connectivity

at 23 weeks, connections between neurons begin to form (a process which continues postnatally)

Anencephaly

head of the neural tube fails to close and highest regions of the brain fail to develop

Spina Bifida

incomplete development of spinal cord resulting in varying degrees of paralysis of lower limbs

Teratogens

any agent that can potentially cause a birth defect or negatively alter cognitive or behavioral outcomes (eg drugs, maternal disease, incompatible blood types, environmental pollutants, nutritional deficiencies, maternal stress, advanced parental age)

What are the most important psychoactive drugs that can negatively influence prenatal development?

Caffeine, alcohol, nicotine, and cocaine

How does the mother's emotional state and stress affect her fetus?

High levels of depression, anxiety, and stress link to internalizing problems in adolescence

High levels of stress indicate risk of having a child with emotional or cognitive problems, ADHD, and language delay

Regardless of the form of maternal prenatal stress or anxiety during the first 2 years of life the offspring displayed lower level of self-regulation

Maternal stressful life events prior to conception increased the risk of having a very low birth weight infant

Describe the stages of birth

Uterine contractions begin (15 to 20 minutes apart) and cervix opens to 10cm

baby begins to move through birth control and mother bear down to push the baby out, contraction come almost every minute

in afterbirth the placenta, umbilical cord, and membranes are detached and expelled

Natural Childbirth

no drugs are given to relieve pain or assist in birth process

Prepared Childbirth

developed by Lamaze, special breathing technique to control pushing in final stages of labor, provided mothers with more details education about anatomy and physiology

Kangaroo Care

skin to skin contact in which the baby, wearing only a despair, is held upright against the parents bare chest

Bonding

forming a close connection, especially a physical bond between parents and their newborn, in the period shortly after birth

Cephalocaudal Growth Pattern

growth sequence that gradually works from top to bottom of the body (eg infants wee objects before controlling their torso)

Proximodistal Pattern

growth sequence in which growth starts at the center of the body and moves towards the extremities (eg control trunk and arms then hands and fingers)

What is the height and weight of an average newborn?

The average American baby is 7.5 pounds and about 20 inches long

How much weight infants typically gain by the age of 4 months? One year?

Double birth weight by 4 months

Triple weight by 1 year

What is the overall growth rate like in early childhood?

Growth slows, patterns vary individually

Girls slightly smaller and lighter

Girls gain fat, boys gain muscle

What is the overall growth rate like in middle and late childhood?

Slower, but consistent growth

Muscle mass and strength increase

Boys stronger, body proportions change

What are the most important physical changes in puberty?

Period of rapid physical maturation involving hormonal and bodily changes that take place in early adolescence

Signs of sexual maturation

Girls tend to be as tall or taller than boys of their age, but by the end of the middle school years, boys have caught up or, in many cases, surpassed girls in height

Menarche

a girl's first period

How does early maturation influence boys and girls?

Early maaturing boys perceived themselves more positively and had more successful peer relationships, but also more sexually active and prone to risky behavior

Early maturing girls may have increase vulnerability to problems (eg smoking, drinking, depression, eating disorders, early dating)

Frontal Lobe

oluntary movement, thinking, personality, emotion, memory, attention, intentionality, or purpose

Occipital Lobe

vision

Temporal Lobe

hearing, language processing, and memory

Parietal lobe

spatial location, attention, and motor control

Myelination

the process of encasing axons with a myelin sheath, thereby improving the speed and efficiency of information processing

How do early experiences impact brain development?

Infant's brains is waiting for experiences to determine how neural connections are made

Children who grow up in deprived environments exhibit depressed brain activity

Which part of the brain continues to develop in late childhood?

The prefrontal cortex continue to increase in middle and late childhood

What are the most important changes in the brain during adolescence?

Pruning leads to fewer, more selective, more effective neural connections

Corpus callosum thickens, improving ability to process information

Amygdala is capable of strong emotion but may lack self-control from the prefrontal cortex

How much do newborns sleep?

16-17 hours per day

How much do infants sleep?

Young children get 11-13 hours of sleep each night

Most sleep throughout the night with one daytime nap

How much should adolescents sleep?

8-10 hours per day

What is SIDS?

Condition in which an infant stops breathing, usually during the night, and dies suddenly without apparent cause

Highest cause of infant death in the US

Why is it important for children to sleep?

Adequate sleep is linked to better peer acceptance, social skills, and receptive vocabulary

Insufficient sleep is linked to depression, school problems, disagreeable families, and living in unsafe neighborhoods

How does sleep change in adolescence?

Sleep Debt = when adolescents do not get enough sleep

Sleep less than 8 hours a day

More caffeine beverage use, use of electronic media, and shift in circadian rhythm to later waking and delay in night time melatonin

How are poverty and health related?

The poor health of many children come from lack of income

Limited healthcare access and malnourishment decreases resistance to diseases

Why is adolescence critical for health?

Many health habits, good or bad, still are being formed

Social contexts, including family, peer, and schools, are an influence to the health of adolescents

What are the benefits of breastfeeding for the infant?

Fewer infections, less likely to become overweight or obese, less likely to develop Type 1 Diabetes, less likely to experience SIDS

How does breastfeeding affect the mother?

Lowers incidence of breast and ovarian cancers, reduction in type 2 diabetes

What are the consequences of childhood obesity?

Linked to being an overweight adult

Raises risk for medical and psychological problems such a pulmonary issues, diabetes, hypertension, high cholesterol, depression, exclusion from peer groups

Anorexia Nervosa

eating disorder that involves relentless pursuit of thinness through starvation

Bulimia Nervosa

consistent binge-and-purge eating pattern

How does the level of exercise change throughout childhood?

Children need daily exercise to support development of muscles in arms and legs, and it also supports cognitive skills

Individuals become less active as they reach and move through adolescence, but boys are more likely to engage in moderate to vigorous exercise than girls

Dynamic Systems Theory

a theory proposed by Esther Thelen, infants must perceive something in the environment that motivates them to act and then use their perceptions to fine-tune their movements

Rooting Reflex

when infant's cheek is stroked or side of the mouth is touched, the infant turns its head and tries to find something to suck

Sucking Reflex

a newborn's reaction of sucking an object placed in infant's mouth, enables the infant to get nourishment before it associates nipple with food

Moro Reflex

a startle response to sudden, intense noise or movement, newborn arches its back, throws head back, and flings our arms and legs and then rapidly closes its arms and legs to center of body

Grasping Reflex

occurs when something touches an infants palm, infants grasps tightly any objects in its palm

Gross Motor Skills

skills that involve large muscle activities, such as moving arms or walking

Describe the major milestones leading to walking.

6 months: rolling

7 to 12 months: crawling

9 to 12 months: pulling up

10 to 18 months: walking

How do motor skills develop in the second year?

Transition to running, climbing furniture, kicking a ball, and refining their fine motor skills to grasp smaller objects, scribble with crayons, and build small towers with blocks

Allow infants to explore the environment more extensively and initiate social interaction, so few restrictions, except for safety, should be placed on toddler motor activity

Do cultural variations in parenting impact motor development?

In developing countries, mothers stimulate their infants motor skills through massaging and stretching infants during daily bath, so infants often reach motor milestones earlier

Forms of restricted movements have been found to delay motor development (eg orphanage restrictions)

What are the positive and negative consequences of participating in organized sports?

Positives: opportunity to exercise, self-esteem, learn to compete, persistence, developing peer relations and friendships

Negatives: pressure to achieve and win, physical injuries, distractions from academic work, unrealistic expectations for athletic success

Fine Motor Skills

involve finely tuned movements, such as finger dexterity

Palmer Grasp

grasp with the whole hand

Pincer Grasp

grasp small objects with thumb and forefinger

How do fine motor skills develop in the first year of life?

4 months will rely greatly on touch to determine how they will grip and object, but 8 months are more likely to use vision as guide

How does practice influence the development of fine motor skills?

Short-term training involving practice of reaching movements increased both preterm and full term infants reaching for and touching objects

How do fine motor skills develop in childhood and adolescence?

Increased myelination of central nervous system supports improvement of fine motor skills

By 10-12 year, children show manipulative skills similar to adults