ANATOMY FINAL

Chapter’s 1-2

Chapter’s 1-2

Homeostasis

The body's ability to maintain a stable internal environment despite external changes.

Negative Feedback

A regulatory mechanism in which the output of a system counteracts changes to maintain stability.

Positive Feedback

A regulatory mechanism in which the output of a system intensifies and reinforces the change, leading to amplification.

Superior/inferior

• Superior: Toward the upper part or head of the body.

• Inferior: Toward the lower part or away from the head of the body.

Anterior/posterior

• Anterior: Toward the front of the body.

• Posterior: Toward the back of the body.

Medial/lateral

• Medial: Toward the midline of the body.

• Lateral: Away from the midline, toward the side.

Superficial/deep

• Superficial: Toward or at the body surface.

• Deep: Away from the body surface; more internal.

Proximal/distal

• Proximal: Closer to the point of attachment or origin.

• Distal: Farther from the point of attachment or origin.

Macromolecules

Large molecules, such as proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids, essential for life processes.

Diffusion

The movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.

Osmosis

The movement of water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane from an area of lower solute concentration to an area of higher solute concentration.

Passive Transport

The movement of substances across a cell membrane without the use of energy, driven by concentration gradients.

Active Transport

The movement of substances across a cell membrane against their concentration gradient, requiring energy input.

Levels of Biological Organization

• Cell: The basic unit of life.

• Tissue: A group of cells working together to perform a specific function.

• Organ: Composed of different tissues, organs carry out complex functions.

• Organ System: Organs working together to achieve a common purpose.

• Organism: A single, complete individual.

• Population: A group of organisms of the same species in a particular area.

• Community: Populations of different species living in the same area.

• Ecosystem: A community and its physical environment.

• Biosphere: The sum of all ecosystems, where life exists.

Feedback Loops

• Positive Feedback: Enhances or amplifies an effect, leading to instability.

• Negative Feedback: Counteracts an effect, maintaining stability.

Properties of Water Important to Biology

• Cohesion: Water molecules sticking to each other.

• Adhesion: Water molecules sticking to other surfaces.

• Surface Tension: The ability of water to "stick together" on the surface.

• High Specific Heat: Water's ability to resist temperature changes.

• Universal Solvent: Water can dissolve many different kinds of molecules.

• Density: Ice is less dense than liquid water, causing it to float.

Effects of pH on Molecules

• pH Scale: Measures the acidity or alkalinity of a solution (0-14).

• Acidic: pH less than 7, more H+ ions.

• Basic (Alkaline): pH greater than 7, more OH- ions.

• Neutral: pH of 7 (pure water).

• pH and Enzyme Activity: Enzymes have optimal pH ranges for activity.

General Functions of Each System

• Integumentary System: Protection, temperature regulation.

• Skeletal System: Support, protection, mineral storage.

• Muscular System: Movement, posture.

• Nervous System: Communication, coordination.

• Endocrine System: Hormone regulation.

• Cardiovascular System: Transport of nutrients, gases.

• Respiratory System: Gas exchange.

• Digestive System: Breakdown and absorption of nutrients.

• Urinary System: Waste elimination, water balance.

• Reproductive System: Reproduction.

Monomers/Functions of Macromolecules

• Carbohydrates: Monomer - Monosaccharides; Function - Energy storage and structure.

• Lipids: Monomer - Fatty acids; Function - Energy storage, insulation, structure.

• Proteins: Monomer - Amino acids; Function - Enzymes, structure, transport, signaling.

• Nucleic Acids: Monomer - Nucleotides; Function - Information storage (DNA, RNA).

Chapter 3

Plasma Membrane

The outer boundary of a cell that separates it from its environment, composed of a lipid bilayer with embedded proteins.

Nucleus

The central organelle in a eukaryotic cell that contains genetic material (DNA) and controls cellular activities.

Junctions

Points of contact between adjacent cells that allow communication and coordination of cellular activities.

Cell Extensions

Projections from the cell surface that increase surface area and aid in cellular functions; examples include cilia and flagella.

Hydrophobic/Hydrophillic

• Hydrophobic: Repellent to water; does not interact well with water.

• Hydrophilic: Attracted to water; interacts well with water.

Solution/solvent/solute

• Solution: A homogeneous mixture composed of a solvent and solute.

• Solvent: The substance in which the solute dissolves.

• Solute: The substance that dissolves in the solvent.

Epithelial tissue

Tissue that covers surfaces and lines cavities; serves as a protective barrier.

Simple squamous epithelium

Single layer of flattened cells; allows for easy diffusion and filtration.

Simple cuboidal epithelium

Single layer of cube-shaped cells; involved in secretion and absorption.

Simple columnar epithelium

Single layer of elongated cells; functions in absorption and secretion.

Pseudostratified columnar epithelium

Single layer of cells that appears stratified due to the varying heights of nuclei; often has cilia.

Stratified squamous epithelium

Multiple layers of flattened cells; provides protection against abrasion.

Connective tissue

Tissue that supports, binds together, and protects tissues and organs of the body.

Bone

Connective tissue with a rigid matrix of mineralized substances; provides structural support.

Cartilage

Flexible connective tissue with a firm matrix; cushions and supports body structures.

Adipose tissue

Connective tissue composed of fat cells; stores energy and provides insulation.

Blood

Connective tissue with a liquid matrix (plasma) that transports nutrients, oxygen, and waste products.

Muscle tissue

Tissue responsible for movement; includes skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle.

Skeletal muscle

Voluntary muscle attached to bones; responsible for body movement.

Smooth muscle

Involuntary muscle found in walls of organs; contracts and relaxes to propel substances.

Cardiac muscle

Involuntary muscle of the heart; contracts to pump blood.

Nervous tissue

Tissue that transmits electrical signals; includes neurons and neuroglia.

Neuron

Nerve cell that transmits electrical signals.

Neuroglia

Support cells in the nervous system; provide structural and functional support to neurons.

Diversity in Cell Functions

The wide range of specialized tasks that cells perform within an organism.

• Cells have specific functions that contribute to the overall functioning of tissues, organs, and systems.

• Examples include muscle cells contracting for movement, nerve cells transmitting signals, and red blood cells carrying oxygen.

Tissue Repair Stages

The sequential processes involved in the healing of damaged tissues.

Stages:

1. Inflammation: Immediate response to injury, involving blood clotting and immune cell activation.

2. Proliferation: Regeneration of tissue through cell division and formation of new blood vessels.

3. Remodeling: Maturation and organization of newly formed tissue to restore functionality.

* Disruption in any stage can impact the overall success of tissue repair.

Cell/Tissue Potency

The potential of a cell or tissue to differentiate into different cell types.

Types:

• Totipotent: Can differentiate into any cell type, including extraembryonic tissues (e.g., embryonic cells).

• Pluripotent: Can differentiate into cells from all three germ layers (e.g., embryonic stem cells).

• Multipotent: Can differentiate into a limited range of cell types within a specific lineage (e.g., adult stem cells).

Tissue Identification Based on Microscopic Images

The process of identifying and classifying tissues by examining their microscopic features.

Steps:

1. Sample Preparation: Tissues are fixed, sectioned, and stained for microscopic analysis.

2. Microscopic Examination: Observing cellular structures, patterns, and characteristics.

3. Comparison: Comparing findings with known tissue types for accurate identification.

*Microscopic identification is crucial in pathology and research.

General Functions of Various Tissue Types

Epithelial Tissue:

• Function: Protection, secretion, absorption.

• Location: Covers body surfaces, lines cavities and organs.

Connective Tissue:

• Function: Support, bind, protect organs.

• Examples: Bone, blood, adipose tissue.

Muscle Tissue:

• Function: Contraction for movement.

• Types: Skeletal, smooth, cardiac.

Nervous Tissue:

• Function: Transmit and process nerve impulses.

• Location: Brain, spinal cord, nerves.

*Understanding tissue functions is essential for comprehending overall organ and system functionality.

Chapter 4

Keratin

Fibrous protein that forms the structural basis of hair, nails, and the outer layer of the skin.

Epidermis

The outermost layer of the skin, providing a protective barrier against the environment.

Dermis

The layer of skin beneath the epidermis, containing blood vessels, nerves, and various structures like hair follicles and sweat glands.

Hypodermis

The subcutaneous tissue beneath the dermis, consisting of fat and connective tissue that insulates and cushions the body.

Papillary/Reticular layers

Layers of the dermis; the papillary layer is closer to the epidermis and the reticular layer is deeper, providing support and structure.

Keratinocytes

The predominant cells in the epidermis, producing the protein keratin and contributing to the skin's strength and water resistance.

Stratum Basale

The deepest layer of the epidermis, where new cells are constantly formed, including keratinocytes.

Melanocytes

Cells in the epidermis that produce the pigment melanin, responsible for skin color and protection against UV radiation.

Melanin

Pigment produced by melanocytes, determining skin, hair, and eye color and providing protection against the harmful effects of sunlight.

Sebaceous Glands

Glands in the skin that produce sebum, an oily substance that helps moisturize and protect the skin and hair.

Sebum

Oily secretion produced by sebaceous glands, helping to lubricate the skin and hair.

Eccrine Glands

Sweat glands distributed across the body, producing a watery sweat to regulate body temperature.

Apocrine Glands

Sweat glands found in specific areas like the armpits and groin, producing a thicker sweat that may be associated with body odor.

Sweat

Fluid produced by sweat glands, consisting of water, salts, and other substances, playing a role in temperature regulation.

Hair Follicle

A structure in the skin from which hair grows, including the hair root and shaft.

Hair Matrix

The actively dividing area at the base of the hair follicle that produces new hair cells.

Arrector Pilus

Small muscles attached to hair follicles, responsible for causing hairs to stand on end (goosebumps) when contracted.

Ways the Skin Provides Protection

• Skin Secretions: The skin produces oils and sweat, forming a protective barrier against harmful microorganisms.

• Stimulation of Melanocytes: Melanocytes are cells that produce melanin, which protects the skin from the harmful effects of ultraviolet (UV) radiation.

• Protection by Melanin: Melanin, the pigment responsible for skin color, provides a defense against UV radiation, reducing the risk of skin damage.

Components of each layer of dermal tissue/vascularization

• Epidermis: The outermost layer of the skin, primarily composed of epithelial cells, forming a protective barrier.

• Dermis: The middle layer containing connective tissue, blood vessels, and nerves, contributing to the skin's strength and resilience.

• Hypodermis: The deepest layer composed of fat and connective tissue, providing insulation and cushioning.

Skin’s role in thermoregulation

The skin regulates body temperature through processes such as sweating (cooling effect) and vasoconstriction/dilation (conserving or releasing heat).

Areas of skin/hair/nail regeneration

• Epidermal Regeneration: The epidermis constantly renews itself through cell division, ensuring a continuous protective outer layer.

• Hair Regeneration: Hair follicles undergo cycles of growth and rest, allowing for the renewal of hair on the skin.

• Nail Regeneration: Nails grow from the nail matrix, a region near the base of the nail, and continue to grow throughout a person's life.

Chapter 5

Compact Bone

Dense and hard outer layer of bone tissue.

Spongy Bone

Less dense, porous bone tissue with a honeycomb-like structure.

Diaphysis

The shaft or central part of a long bone.

Epiphysis

The end part of a long bone, often separated from the diaphysis by the epiphyseal plate.

Epiphyseal Line/Plate

A plate of hyaline cartilage found in the metaphysis at each end of a long bone.

Periosteum

A dense layer of vascular connective tissue enveloping the bones except at the surfaces of the joints.

Osteocytes

Mature bone cells embedded in the matrix of bone tissue.

Lacunae

Small cavities in bone that contain osteocytes.

Central Canal

Longitudinal canal in the center of an osteon, containing blood vessels and nerves.

Perforating Canal

Canal perpendicular to the central canal, connecting blood vessels and nerves.

Canaliculi

Microscopic canals that connect lacunae to each other and to the central canal.

Ossification

The process of bone formation, also known as osteogenesis.

Fibrous Joints

Joints where bones are joined by dense fibrous connective tissue; little to no movement.

Cartilaginous Joints

Joints where bones are connected by cartilage; limited movement.

Synovial Joints

Joints where the articulating bones are separated by a joint cavity filled with synovial fluid, allowing free movement.

Articular Cartilage

Smooth, white tissue covering the ends of bones at a joint.

Synovial Fluid

Clear, lubricating fluid found in the synovial joints.

Arthritis

Inflammation of one or more joints, causing pain and stiffness.

Osteoporosis

A condition characterized by a decrease in bone density, leading to fragile bones.

Red/Yellow marrow

Red marrow produces blood cells, while yellow marrow stores fat.

Ligaments

Strong bands of fibrous connective tissue that connect bones to each other in joints.

5 Functions of Bones

• Support: Bones provide structural support for the body and serve as a framework.

• Protection: Bones protect vital organs, such as the skull protecting the brain and the ribcage protecting the heart and lungs.

• Movement: Bones, along with muscles and joints, enable movement and locomotion.

• Mineral Storage: Bones store essential minerals, including calcium and phosphorus, which can be released into the bloodstream when needed.

• Blood Cell Formation: Bone marrow is involved in the production of red and white blood cells and platelets.

Bone Repair Process

Bones of the Body

• Radius: Runs through your forearm; connects to the wrist on the thumb side

• Tibia: Medial to the fibula

• Clavicle: Fancy term for collar bone

• Metacarpel: Bones in the palm of your hand

• Ulna: Runs through your forearm; connects to the wrist on the pinkie side

• Femur: Runs through your thigh

• Humerus: Connects your shoulder to the radius and ulna

Chapter 6

Muscle Fiber

A single muscle cell, also known as a myocyte, that contains myofibrils and is capable of contracting.

Endomysium

Connective tissue that surrounds individual muscle fibers within a muscle.