Modern World History Final Study Guide

Feudalism

A social and economic system that dominated medieval Europe, where land was exchanged for service and loyalty. It involved a hierarchy of lords, vassals, and serfs, with agriculture serving as the primary economic activity.

Mercantilism

An economic theory that emphasizes the role of the state in managing the economy through regulation and trade. It advocates for accumulating wealth, primarily gold and silver, by promoting exports over imports.

Capitalism

An economic system characterized by private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit. It promotes competition and consumer choice, often leading to innovation and growth.

Socialism

An economic system wherein the means of production are owned and regulated by the state or community as a whole. It aims to reduce inequality by distributing wealth more evenly among the population.

communism

A political and economic ideology advocating for a classless society where all property is publicly owned and each person works and is paid according to their abilities and needs.

Authoritarianism

A governing system characterized by strong central power and limited political freedoms, often led by a single ruler or party, where individual freedoms are subordinate to the state.

Totalitarianism

A political system in which the state holds total authority over the society and seeks to control all aspects of public and private life.

Industrial Revolution

The period of great technological and industrial development during the late 18th and early 19th centuries, marked by the transition from agrarian economies to industrialized and urban ones, significantly transforming society.

Bourgeoisie

The social class that emerged during the Industrial Revolution, primarily characterized by their ownership of capital and means of production, often contrasted with the working class.

proletariat

The class of wage earners in a capitalist society, whose only possession of significant material value is their labor power, often contrasted with the bourgeoisie. This class plays a key role in the economic structure and is often involved in labor movements advocating for better conditions.

Nationalism

A political ideology that emphasizes the interests of a particular nation, often prioritizing national identity and unity over other social or political affiliations. It can lead to the pursuit of national independence or self-determination.

Imperialism

A policy or practice where a country extends its power and dominance over other nations or territories, often through military conquest, colonization, or economic influence.

Colonialism

A practice of acquiring and exploiting territories by establishing control over foreign lands and their resources, often leading to settlement and lasting cultural impacts.

Social Darwinism

A theory that applies the concept of natural selection to human societies, suggesting that social and economic success stems from 'survival of the fittest,' often used to justify imperialism and racial inequality.

Humanitarianism

A belief in the promotion of human welfare and the alleviation of suffering, often influencing imperialistic policies under the guise of providing aid and assistance to less developed nations.

Berlin Act

An international agreement that regulated European colonization and trade in Africa, establishing guidelines for the occupation of African territories. Happened in 1885

scramble for Africa

Refers to the rapid invasion, colonization, and annexation of African territories by European powers in the late 19th century, leading to significant political and social changes across the continent.

Manifest destiny

The 19th-century doctrine that the expansion of the United States throughout the American continents was both justified and inevitable.

Monroe Doctrine

A US policy that opposed European colonialism in the Americas, asserting that any intervention by external powers in the politics of the Americas is a potentially hostile act against the US.

Triple Alliance

A military alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy formed in 1882, which sought to counterbalance the influence of the Triple Entente. The alliance aimed to provide mutual support in the event of war, solidifying the relationships among these central powers before World War I.

Triple Entente

A military alliance formed between France, Russia, and Great Britain prior to World War I, intended to counter the threat posed by the Triple Alliance.

Schlieffen Plan

A strategic military plan devised by Germany during World War I, aimed at quickly defeating France by invading through Belgium before turning to confront Russia.

Blank Check

A diplomatic pledge made by Germany to support Austria-Hungary unconditionally in its conflict with Serbia, which contributed to the escalation of tensions leading to World War I.

Trench Warfare

A combat method characterized by soldiers fighting from deep, fortified ditches, which became a hallmark of World War I, leading to stalemates and horrific living conditions.

Wilson’s 14 points

A statement of principles for peace negotiations to end World War I proposed by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, emphasizing self-determination, free trade, and the establishment of the League of Nations.

Treaty of versailles

The peace treaty that officially ended World War I, imposing heavy reparations and territorial losses on Germany while establishing the League of Nations.

Bolshevik

A member of the radical socialist faction led by Lenin, which seized control of Russia in the October Revolution of 1917, advocating for a workers' government and communist principles.

Facsism

A political ideology characterized by authoritarian nationalism, centralized control, and often a dictatorial leader, emphasizing the supremacy of the state over individual rights.

Nazi Germany

A totalitarian regime led by Adolf Hitler from 1933 to 1945, marked by fascist policies, aggressive expansionism, and the implementation of the Holocaust.

Fascist Italy

A regime led by Benito Mussolini from 1922 to 1943, promoting extreme nationalism, militarism, and the suppression of opposition.

Lebensraum

The concept of "living space" used by Nazi Germany to justify territorial expansion, particularly in Eastern Europe, asserting that the German people needed more land for growth and sustenance.

Lateran Treaty

An agreement made in 1929 between the Kingdom of Italy and the Holy See, establishing Vatican City as a sovereign state and resolving the Roman Question.

collectivization

The policy of forced consolidation of individual peasant farms into large, state-controlled farms, promoted in the Soviet Union to increase agricultural productivity and state control.

USSR

a federal socialist state in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia that existed from 1922 to 1991, formed after the Russian Revolution and characterized by a single-party rule of the Communist Party.

Mutually Assured Destruction(MAD)

a military doctrine in which two or more opposing sides would cause complete annihilation to each other in the event of a nuclear war, discouraging direct conflict.

NATO

an intergovernmental military alliance established in 1949 for collective defense against aggression, primarily composed of North American and European countries.

Warsaw Pact

a collective defense treaty established in 1955 among the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc communist states, serving as a counterbalance to NATO during the Cold War.

Kulaks

wealthy peasants in Russia who owned larger farms and were often targeted during Stalin's collectivization policies.

Gulag

a system of labor camps in the Soviet Union used for political prisoners and criminals, notorious for harsh conditions and forced labor.

New Economic policy

a government policy initiated by Lenin in 1921 to stabilize the economy after the Russian Civil War, allowing some private enterprise and small-scale private farming.

Holodomor

a man-made famine in Soviet Ukraine from 1932 to 1933, caused by the policies of the Soviet government under Stalin, leading to millions of deaths. It was a result of forced collectivization and grain requisitioning, aimed at suppressing Ukrainian nationalism.

Axis Powers

The coalition of countries led by Germany, Italy, and Japan during World War II, opposing the Allies.

Allied Powers

The coalition of countries, including the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom, that opposed the Axis Powers during World War II.

Blitzkreig

a rapid military attack strategy used by Germany in World War II, characterized by swift and concentrated assaults using combined air and ground forces.

Appeasement

A diplomatic policy aimed at avoiding conflict by making concessions to aggressive powers, notably used by Britain and France towards Germany in the lead-up to World War II.

Total war economy

An economic strategy where all resources and efforts of a nation are mobilized to support the war effort, often involving government control over production and distribution of goods during wartime.

Little boy

A code name for the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima, Japan, by the United States on August 6, 1945, during World War II.

Fat man

A code name for the atomic bomb dropped on Nagasaki, Japan, by the United States on August 9, 1945, during World War II.

Island Hopping

A military strategy employed by the Allies in the Pacific Theater during World War II, aimed at capturing strategically important islands while bypassing others to move closer to Japan.

marshall plan

A U.S. program initiated in 1948 to aid European nations in economic recovery after World War II, providing over $12 billion for rebuilding efforts.

Bretton woods conference

An international conference held in July 1944, where representatives from 44 nations gathered to establish a new global economic order. It resulted in the creation of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank.

Truman doctrine

A U.S. foreign policy established in 1947 aimed at containing the spread of communism by providing political, military, and economic assistance to countries threatened by Soviet expansion.

Proxy Wars

Conflicts where two opposing countries support combatants that serve their interests instead of waging direct war against each other.

Space race

A competition between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War to achieve significant advancements in space exploration, culminating in the lunar landing in 1969.

Berlin wall

A barrier built in 1961 that divided East and West Berlin, symbolizing the ideological divide of the Cold War and preventing East Germans from fleeing to the West until its fall in 1989.

Containment

A foreign policy strategy aimed at preventing the spread of communism by containing it within existing borders, particularly associated with the United States during the Cold War.

Iron Curtain

A term coined by Winston Churchill in 1946 to describe the division between the Soviet-controlled Eastern Europe and the Western democracies, marking the ideological conflict of the Cold War.

Domino Theory

The belief that a political event in one country will cause similar events in neighboring countries, particularly related to the spread of communism during the Cold War.

Détente

A period of relaxed tensions and improved relations between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War, characterized by arms control agreements and diplomatic negotiations.

Perestroika

A political movement for reforming the economic and political system in the Soviet Union, initiated by Mikhail Gorbachev in the 1980s, aimed at transitioning to a more market-oriented economy.

Glasnost

A policy of openness and transparency in government affairs and media, introduced by Mikhail Gorbachev in the 1980s, aimed at encouraging public discussion and reducing censorship in the Soviet Union.

Decolonization

The process by which colonies gained independence from colonial powers, particularly during the mid-20th century, leading to the emergence of new, sovereign nations. This movement was marked by significant political, social, and economic changes, often resulting in the end of colonial rule and the establishment of self-governance.

Great Depression

A severe worldwide economic downturn that began in 1929 and lasted through the late 1930s, characterized by widespread unemployment, a drastic decline in industrial production, and significant deflation.

People’s republic of China

The official name for the state governed by the Communist Party of China since 1949, marked by significant economic reforms and a shift to a market-oriented economy.

League of Nations

An international organization established after World War I in 1920, aimed at promoting peace and cooperation among countries but ultimately failed to prevent World War II.

United Nations

An intergovernmental organization founded in 1945, established to promote international cooperation, peace, and security, replacing the League of Nations.

German Soviet Non aggression pact

A treaty signed in 1939 between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, in which both countries agreed to take no military action against each other for the duration of World War II.

Anti-comintern pact

A treaty signed in 1939 between Germany, Japan, and Italy, aimed at opposing the spread of communism and establishing a military alliance.

Karl Marx

Philosopher and economist known for his theories on capitalism and socialism. He co-wrote "The Communist Manifesto" and authored "Das Kapital," which critique capitalist society and outline a revolutionary theory.

Otto Von Bismarck

A German statesman and the first Chancellor of the German Empire, known for unifying Germany through a series of wars and clever diplomacy in the late 19th century.

Tsar Nicholas II

The last Emperor of Russia, ruling from 1894 until his abdication in 1917, known for his failure to address social issues leading to the Russian Revolution.

Kaiser Wilhelm II

The last German Emperor and King of Prussia, ruling from 1888 to 1918. His militaristic policies and support for Austria-Hungary contributed to the outbreak of World War I.

King George V

The King of the United Kingdom from 1910 to 1936, known for leading Britain through World War I and overseeing significant changes in the British monarchy.

Woodrow Wilson

The 28th President of the United States, serving from 1913 to 1921, known for his leadership during World War I and the establishment of the League of Nations. He promoted the Fourteen Points for peace.

Rasputin

A Russian mystic and advisor to the Romanov family, particularly Tsar Nicholas II, whose influence and controversial reputation contributed to the public's discontent leading up to the Russian Revolution.

Lenin

The leader of the Bolshevik Party and key figure in the Russian Revolution of 1917. He established a communist government in Russia and served as the head of state from 1917 until his death in 1924.

Stalin

The General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, he led the country from the mid-1920s until his death in 1953. known for his totalitarian rule, industrialization efforts, and the Great Purge.

Hitler

The leader of the National Socialist German Workers' Party (Nazi Party), he rose to power as Chancellor of Germany and later Führer, instigating World War II and the Holocaust.

Mussolini

Fascist leader of Italy, who ruled from 1922 until 1943. He established a totalitarian regime and was a key figure in World War II allied with Nazi Germany.

King Victor Emmanuel III

The King of Italy from 1900 to 1946, he played a significant role in the unification of Italy and later appointed Mussolini as Prime Minister, ultimately losing power after World War II as Italy became a republic.

Neville Chamberlain

The British Prime Minister from 1937 to 1940, he is best known for his policy of appeasement towards Adolf Hitler, signing the Munich Agreement in 1938, which allowed Nazi Germany to annex parts of Czechoslovakia.

Winston Churchill

British Prime Minister during World War II, known for his leadership and speeches that bolstered British morale against Nazi Germany. He succeeded Neville Chamberlain in 1940 and played a crucial role in the Allied victory.

Franklin D. Roosevelt

The 32nd President of the United States, serving from 1933 to 1945, he led the nation during the Great Depression and World War II, implementing the New Deal and establishing Social Security. He was a central figure in American politics, known for his effective use of radio with "Fireside Chats" and pursuing policies aimed at economic recovery and social reform.

Harry Truman

The 33rd President of the United States, serving from 1945 to 1953, he is known for making the decision to use atomic bombs on Japan to end World War II and for initiating the Marshall Plan to rebuild Europe.

Nikita Khrushchev

A Soviet statesman who led the Soviet Union during part of the Cold War. He is known for de-Stalinization, the Cuban Missile Crisis, and promoting the space race.

Dwight D. Eisenhower

The 34th President of the United States, serving from 1953 to 1961. He was a key military leader during World War II and is known for implementing policies of containment during the Cold War, including the establishment of NATO and the Interstate Highway System.

John F. Kennedey

The 35th President of the United States, serving from 1961 until his assassination in 1963. He is known for his Cold War leadership, the Cuban Missile Crisis, and initiatives like the Peace Corps and the space race.

Fidel Castro

Cuban revolutionary and political leader who governed Cuba from 1959 to 2008, known for establishing a one-party socialist state and aligning with the Soviet Union during the Cold War.

Mao Zedong

The founding father of the People's Republic of China, serving as its leader from 1949 until his death in 1976. He is known for his role in the Chinese Communist Revolution, the Great Leap Forward, and the Cultural Revolution.

Mikhail Gorbachev

The last General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1985 to 1991, known for his policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) that aimed to reform the Soviet system and ultimately led to the end of the Cold War.

Ronald Regan

The 40th President of the United States who served from 1981 to 1989, he is known for his conservative economic policies, the promotion of supply-side economics, and a strong stance against the Soviet Union during the Cold War.

Italian Unification (1861)

The political and social process that consolidated the various states of the Italian peninsula into the single state of Italy. Led primarily by figures such as Giuseppe Garibaldi and Count Cavour, this unification was achieved through a combination of diplomacy and military action.

Germany unification

The process by which East and West Germany were unified into a single nation in 1990, following the end of the Cold War. It involved significant political, social, and economic changes and the dismantling of the Berlin Wall.

Berlin Conference (1884-85)

A meeting where European powers divided African territories among themselves without considering local populations or claims. This led to colonialism and significant social and political changes across the continent.

Spanish American War(1898)

A conflict between the United States and Spain in 1898, resulting in the U.S. acquiring territories such as Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. It was triggered by tensions over Cuban independence and the explosion of the USS Maine.

Moroccan Crises(1905-1906)

A series of international crises between France and Germany over Morocco, which heightened tensions leading to World War I. The first crisis in 1905 involved Germany challenging French influence, while the second in 1911 involved a military confrontation.

October Manifesto(1905)

A document issued by Tsar Nicholas II in response to the 1905 Revolution, promising democratic reforms such as the establishment of a legislative assembly (Duma) and civil liberties for the Russian people.

First Balkan War(1912-13)

A conflict that saw Balkan League nations (Serbia, Montenegro, Greece, and Bulgaria) fighting against the Ottoman Empire, resulting in significant territorial losses for the Ottomans and the creation of a more nationalist Balkans.

Second Balkan War(1913)

A conflict in which Bulgaria fought against its former allies Serbia and Greece, as well as Romania and the Ottoman Empire, resulting in territorial losses for Bulgaria and a reconfiguration of Balkan territories.

July Crisis of 1914

A series of diplomatic and military escalations following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, leading to the outbreak of World War I.