Psychology: Nature vs. Nurture, Brain Structures, and Neural Processes

What is the nature vs. nurture debate in psychology?

It argues whether genes and heredity (nature) or environment (nurture) plays a greater role in psychological traits or behaviors.

What principle did Charles Darwin establish that relates to evolutionary psychology?

Natural selection, which states that inherited traits that enhance survival and reproduction are more likely to be passed on.

What does 'survival of the fittest' refer to?

It refers to the idea that individuals best adapted to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce.

What is adaptation in the context of evolution?

The process by which a species becomes better suited to its environment through natural selection.

What is mutation?

A random error in gene replication that leads to a change in the genetic material.

What is eugenics?

The practice of selective breeding to create ideal specimens, which is now considered outdated and discriminatory.

What do twin studies help researchers explore?

They help explore the nature vs. nurture debate by comparing identical and fraternal twins.

What are identical twins?

Twins that develop from a single fertilized egg and share the same genes.

What are fraternal twins?

Twins that develop from different eggs fertilized simultaneously and share genes like regular siblings.

What is epigenetics?

The study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without changes to the DNA sequence.

What is the central nervous system (CNS)?

The part of the nervous system that includes the brain and spinal cord.

What is the peripheral nervous system (PNS)?

The part of the nervous system that consists of sensory and motor neurons connecting to the CNS.

What functions does the autonomic nervous system control?

Involuntary functions such as heartbeat, digestion, and breathing.

What is the role of the sympathetic nervous system?

It triggers the fight or flight response, increasing heart rate and respiration.

What does the parasympathetic nervous system do?

It promotes rest and digestion, slowing down the body after stress.

What are afferent nerves?

Sensory neurons that carry information to the central nervous system.

What are efferent nerves?

Motor neurons that carry information away from the central nervous system to muscles.

What is a reflex arc?

An automatic response to stimuli where sensory neurons send information to the spinal cord.

What are the key components of a neuron?

Soma (cell body), dendrites, axon, and axon terminals.

What is the function of the myelin sheath?

It insulates and protects the axon, speeding up neural transmission.

What is resting potential in a neuron?

The slightly negative charge of a neuron when it is not firing.

What triggers action potential in a neuron?

When stimulation reaches the threshold, causing the neuron to fire.

What is the all-or-nothing law in neural firing?

A neuron either fires completely or not at all, depending on whether the threshold is met.

What is the refractory period?

The brief pause after a neuron fires when it cannot fire again until repolarized.

What is reuptake in neural communication?

The process where neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the axon terminals after transmitting a signal.

What is Multiple Sclerosis (MS)?

A chronic autoimmune disease where the immune system attacks the myelin sheath.

What is Myasthenia Gravis?

A chronic autoimmune neuromuscular disorder characterized by weakness and rapid fatigue of voluntary muscles.

What characterizes Myasthenia Gravis?

A chronic autoimmune neuromuscular disorder causing weakness and rapid fatigue of voluntary muscles.

What is the function of excitatory neurotransmitters?

They increase the likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will fire an action potential by causing depolarization.

What do inhibitory neurotransmitters do?

They decrease the likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will fire an action potential by causing hyperpolarization.

What role does Acetylcholine (ACh) play in the nervous system?

It enables muscle action, learning, and memory; undersupply is linked to Alzheimer's disease.

What happens with an undersupply of Dopamine?

It is linked to Parkinson's disease.

What is the effect of Serotonin on mood?

It affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal; undersupply is linked to depression.

What does Norepinephrine help control?

Alertness and arousal; its undersupply is linked to depression.

What is the function of GABA?

It is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that calms the nervous system; undersupply is linked to seizures and insomnia.

What does Glutamate do?

It is an excitatory neurotransmitter involved in memory; undersupply is linked to concentration problems.

What is the role of Endorphins?

They influence the perception of pain and pleasure; undersupply is linked to depression.

What is the endocrine system?

The body's slow chemical communication system consisting of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

What hormone is released by the adrenal glands?

Adrenaline, which prepares the body for emergencies (fight or flight).

What is the function of Melatonin?

It regulates the sleep/wake cycle and is secreted by the pineal gland.

How do psychoactive drugs primarily work?

By stimulating, inhibiting, or mimicking neurotransmitter activity.

What are agonists in the context of drugs?

Substances that increase or mimic a neurotransmitter's action.

What are antagonists?

Substances that block receptor sites for neurotransmitters.

What are hallucinogens?

Drugs that distort perception and can cause false sensory experiences.

What are the effects of depressants?

They reduce neural activity, increase relaxation, and decrease mood and arousal.

What are opiates known for?

They decrease feelings of pain.

What are stimulants?

Drugs that excite neural activity, increase energy, and decrease appetite.

What is addiction characterized by?

Compulsive drug use or behaviors despite harmful consequences.

What is tolerance in drug use?

Diminished psychoactive effects after repeated use of a drug.

What is withdrawal?

Painful symptoms that occur when the body readjusts to the absence of a drug.

What is the brain stem responsible for?

Automatic survival functions such as breathing and heartbeat.

What does the reticular formation control?

Arousal and alertness; damage can lead to permanent sleep or wakefulness.

What is the function of the cerebellum?

Coordinates movement and balance, processes sensory input, and enables nonverbal learning and memory.

What is the thalamus known as?

The sensory 'switchboard' that directs messages to sensory receiving areas in the cortex.

What is the limbic system associated with?

Emotions and drives.

What is the function of the amygdala?

Responsible for survival emotions such as fear and aggression.

What role does the hippocampus play in the brain?

Processes and stores explicit memories of facts and events.

What are the main functions of the hypothalamus?

Regulates maintenance behaviors like eating and drinking, maintains body temperature, and links to emotion and reward.

What is the pituitary gland known as and what is its primary function?

Known as the 'master gland', it controls hormone release throughout the body by regulating all endocrine glands.

What does the pineal gland produce and what does it regulate?

Produces melatonin, which regulates the body's sleep cycle.

What is the corpus callosum and its significance?

A network of fibers connecting the two hemispheres of the brain, allowing communication between them.

What is the cerebral cortex and its primary functions?

The outer layer of the brain responsible for control and information processing, including memory, attention, and consciousness.

What are the four lobes of the cerebral cortex?

Frontal, Parietal, Temporal, and Occipital lobes.

What are the key functions of the frontal lobe?

Involved in complex behaviors and executive functions like planning, decision making, and personality; contains Broca's area for speech production.

What is Broca's aphasia?

A condition characterized by problems with fluency in speech production due to damage in Broca's area.

What does the parietal lobe process?

Receives sensory input for touch sensations and body position; contains the somatosensory cortex.

What is the function of the temporal lobes?

Includes auditory areas, assists with memory, and contains Wernicke's area for language comprehension.

What is Wernicke's aphasia?

A condition where individuals have difficulty understanding language, leading to jumbled syntax and grammar.

What is the role of the occipital lobes?

Responsible for visual processing and receives information from the visual fields of opposite eyes.

What is neuroplasticity?

The brain's ability to change, build, and reorganize itself after damage or experience.

What is neurogenesis?

The process of producing new neurons in the brain.

What is aphasia?

A lack of speech production and/or comprehension due to brain damage.

What are some non-invasive techniques used to view the brain?

Electroencephalogram (EEG), Magnetoencephalography (MEG), Computed Tomography (CT), Positron Emission Tomography (PET), and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI).

How does an EEG work?

Measures electrical activity in neurons through electrodes placed on the scalp.

What does a CT scan do?

Generates images of the head using X-rays to locate brain damage.

What does a PET scan track?

Tracks the movement of a radioactive form of glucose in the brain during a task.

What is the purpose of functional MRI (fMRI)?

Measures blood flow to brain regions by comparing continuous MRI scans.

What is the split-brain procedure?

A treatment for severe epilepsy where the corpus callosum is cut to prevent seizures.

What is brain lateralization?

The tendency for some neural functions or cognitive processes to be specialized to one side of the brain.