PR 2

Discrete (Integer Variable)

 Countable whole numbers. Cannot take negative or fractional values.
Examples: number of students in a class, group size, frequency.

Continuous (Ratio Variable)

• Can take fractional (nonwhole) values, either positive or negative.
  Examples: height, temperature.

Qualitative (Categorical)

Defines groups or categories of equal magnitude.
Examples: blood type, hair color, mode of transportation.

Ordinal 

• Ranked or ordered variables.
  Examples: Spotify Top 20 hits, academic honors (with highest, with high, with honors).

Independent Variable (X)

• Stands alone and not influenced by other variables.

• The presumed cause in the study.

• Stable and unaffected

Dependent Variable (Y)

• Influenced by other variables.

• The presumed effect in the study.

• Depends on other factors being measured.

Experimental Design 

Used to determine the outcome of a specific intervention.
The researcher provides treatment to one group and withholds it from another to compare outcomes.

True-Experimental Design

• Researcher has full control over who, where, when, and how the experiment is conducted.

Example: “A comparison of the effects of various blended learning to the reading comprehension of elementary pupils.”

Criteria for a True Experiment

1. There must be a control group and at least one experimental group.

2. There must be a variable controlled by the researcher.

3. The groups must be randomly assigned

Manipulation, Randomization, Control

characteristics of a true experiment: M, R, C

Quasi-Experimental Design 

• Used to establish cause-and-effect relationships but lacks random selection or assignment.

• Example: “The effects of unemployment on attitude towards following safety protocols in ECQ declared areas.”
  

If there is no randomization in participant selection, the design automatically becomes quasi-experimental.

Non-Experimental Design

• Describes data quantitatively.

• Determines relationships between variables but cannot establish cause-and-effect.

• Does not include an independent variable.
  

Survey Research Design

Provides numeric description of trends, attitudes, or behaviors.
Example: “The Impact of Social Media Usage on the Study Habits of Senior High School Students.”

Cross-Sectional 

Data collected at one point in time.

Longitudinal

Data collected repeatedly over time.

Correlational Research Design

 Identifies relationships between variables without manipulating them.
Example: “The relationship between the amount of physical activity done and student academic achievement.”

Comparative Research Design

Identifies differences between variables but does not imply causation.
Example: “Is there a difference in the level of knowledge of grade 11 students when grouped according to age?”

Descriptive Research Design

Describes phenomena as they occur naturally, without manipulation or hypothesis.
Example: “The determination of the different kinds of physical activities and how often high school students do them during quarantine.”

Interestingness

 Must interest both writer and reader.

Specificity/Limitedness

Topic should be focused and manageable.

Relevance

must be related to the researcher’s field or discipline

Familiarity

researcher should already know the topic

Availability of Materials

sources and references must be accessible

Feasibility

the topic must ne realistic and doable

A good research title:

• contain the main idea and be able to stand alone.
  

• Be concise (limit to 12 words).

• Avoid abbreviations, formulas, jargon, and verbs.

Reader Pattern (Springer, 2014):

• Title → Abstract → Results → Full Paper

• For every 1,000 people who read the title, only 1 reads the full paper.
  
  

Interrogative Form

“What is the motivation in using Facebook?”

Combinatorial (Question +Title)

“Who uses Facebook? An investigation into the relationship between the Big Five, shyness, narcissism, loneliness, and Facebook usage.”

Combinatorial (Phrase + Title)

Too much face and not enough books: The relationship between Facebook use and academic performance.”

Novel Method

• “Attitudes of elderly Korean patients towards death and dying: An application of Q-methodology.”

Result-Oriented

•  “Preventive health behaviors influenced by self-perceptions of aging.”

Chapter 1 Sections (Calderon and Gonzales, 1993) 

1. Introduction

2. Statement of the Problem:

3. Hypothesis:

4. Conceptual/Theoretical Framework.
   

Introduction

Background, reasons for study, and link to SOP.

Statement of the Problem

General problem and sub-questions.

Hypothesis

A testable proposition or assumption.

Conceptual/Theoretical Framework

Theories and concepts supporting the study.

Importance of Research Problem

• Shows the topic’s relevance.

• Defines variables and context.

• Suggests a framework for findings and interpretation.
  

Causal Questions

Compare two or more phenomena to determine relationships.
Example: “Does the amount of calcium in children’s diets affect the number of cavities per year?”

Descriptive Questions 

 Describe phenomena; ask “how much,” “how often,” or “what is the change.”
Example: “How often do college students use Twitter?”

Comparative Questions

 Examine differences between groups.
Example: “What is the difference in caloric intake between high school girls and boys?”

Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic, Time-Bound

SMART Method

Theoretical Framework

Foundation of the study; provides the base for discussion.

Conceptual Framework

• Structure or paradigm for research analysis; guides the flow of the study.

Introduction

Presents the main idea of the review.

Main Body

Summarizes and synthesizes related studies.

Conclusion/Recommendations

 States what was learned and identifies research gaps.

Purpose of RRL

• Summarizes existing knowledge on a topic.

• Identifies gaps in previous research.

• Justifies the current study.

Research Literature

Based on actual research findings (journals, theses, abstracts).

Non-Research Literature

 Not data-based but informative (magazines, opinion articles, anecdotes).

Primary Sources

Written by original researchers (journals, dissertations, theses).

Secondary Sources

Written by others (reviews, summaries, reports).

In-text Citations

Inside the body of the paper.

Footnotes

Shown at the bottom of the same page.

Endnotes 

Placed at the end of a paper or chapter.

Formatting Standards (APA/MLA)

• Font size: 12

• Line spacing: Double

• Alignment: Justified

• Margins: 1 inch on all sides

 Title Page – Abstract – Main Body – References

APA Paper Parts 

Reference Page

• Titled “References” (APA) or “Works Cited” (MLA).

• Entries listed alphabetically by author’s last name.

Plagiarism of Words

Copying exact words without citation.

Plagiarism of Structure

Rephrasing while copying sentence structure.

Plagiarism of Ideas

 Using another’s ideas without credit.

Plagiarism of Authorship

Submitting someone else’s work.

Plagiarism of Self 

Using one output for multiple credits.

Simple Hypothesis 

One independent and one dependent variable.
Example: “Unemployment leads to higher crime rates.”

Complex Hypothesis 

More than one independent or dependent variable.
Example: “Unemployment leads to higher crime and poverty.”

Null Hypothesis (H₀)

No relationship exists.
Example: “Number of books owned does not affect academic performance.”

Research Hypothesis (Hₐ)

Relationship exists.
Example: “Exposure to music affects level of anxiety.”

Directional Hypothesis

States direction of relationship.
Example: “Health decreases as stress increases.”

Non-Directional Hypothesis

Relationship stated without direction.
Example: “Health affects level of stress among senior high school students.”

Surveys

Close-ended questions with options.

Interviews

Structured with pre-set questions.

Observations

Data collected through senses systematically.

Experiments

Manipulation of independent variables to test outcomes.

Laboratory Experiments 

 Conducted in a controlled setting.

Field

 Done in natural settings with some control.

Natural

No control over variables

Convenience Sampling

Based on researcher’s accessibility/ convenience

Snowball Sampling

 Participants refer others.

Purposive Sampling 

based on specific criteria 

Quota Sampling

researcher sets quotas for subgroups

Simple Random Sampling

Each member has equal chance; uses random selection.

Systematic Sampling 

Uses interval formula (k = N/n).
Example: 20,000 population, 100 samples → k = 200.

Stratified Sampling 

Population divided into subgroups (strata); random samples taken from each.

Cluster Sampling

Sampling done in stages (e.g., schools → classes → students).

Replicate

 Allows others to repeat the study.

Evaluate

 Enables readers to assess the validity and reliability of the research.

Subsections of Methodology

• Research Design

• Research Locale
  Population and Sampling
  Research Ethics
  Research Instruments
  Data Collection and Analysis

Sample

Subset taken from the population.

Test Statistics

Numerical summary used in hypothesis testing.

Variables

Attributes that can change or be controlled.

Measurement Scales

Determine how variables are measured.

Nominal

Categories or groups; no order.

Ordinal

ranked or ordered data

Interval

•  Equal distances between data points; no true zero.

Ratio

Has a true zero; allows widest range of statistical methods.

Quantitative Data Analysis

Analyzing and interpreting numerical data to answer research questions and test hypotheses.

Descriptive Statistics

Provides a simple summary of data.

Mean (Average)

sum of all values divided by the number of values.

Median (Midpoint)

 middle value when arranged in order.

Mode (Most Common)

most frequently occurring value.

Frequency and Percentage

shows how often each data point appears.