AP psych semester 1 Study guide

Experimental

proves cause and effect

Non-experimental

does not prove cause and effect

Independent variable

variable that is changed

Dependent variable

variable that is measured

confounding variable

factors other than the independent variable that may cause a result

random assignment

every participant having an equal chance of each assignment (control or experimental)

population

number of group of people from a specific group

sample

a sample is the group of people in a large group

random sampling

a sample that fairly represents a population, because each member has an equal chance of being included

representative samples

a sample that matches the representation

convenience samples

a non probaility sample method where data is collected by an easily accessible and available group of people

sampling bias

the sample doesn’t accurately represent the population being studied

generalizability

something that can be applied to a whole population

Experimental group

receives the treatment

control group

does not receive the treatment

placebo group

a group that receives what they think is to be the treatment but is actually a neutral thing that does not contain any treatment

placebo effect

when the brain thinks the individual’s treatment for their mental health or physical health is working after taking a placebo

single blind procedure

researcher knows treatment groups

double blind procedure

neither researcher nor participants know treatment groups

experimenter bias

double blind limits experimenter bias

case study

a person or group being studied for a specific experience or situation

correlation

(Does not cause causation) a measure of the extent to which 2 factors vary together

positive correlation

when both variables increase

negative correlation

both variables have an inverse relationship (one up one down)dir

directionalilty problem

what causes what? ex: does depression cause low self esteem

third variable problem

a confounding variable affects both variables to make them seem causally related when they are not.

scatter plots

scatter of plots showing what happens with one variable when another variable is changed

correlation coefficient

indicates a measure of the direction and strength of a relationship between 2 variables

quantitative measures (e.g. likert scales)

uses numerical data to represent a variable

qualitative measures (e.g. structures interviews)

in depth, narrative data

surveys

a series of questions asked to the respondents in order to understand their processes and mental state f

framing

a type of cognitive bias or error in thinking

social desirability bias

people answer in a way they think will please the researcher

self report bias

when people don’t accurately report or remember their behaviors

meta-analysis

combining the results of multiple studies

naturalistic observation

qualitative research method where you record behavior of the individuals

hypothesis

a guess of what is going to happen

falseifiability

good hypotheses are falsifiable

operational definitions

carefully worded statement of exact procedures

replication

repeating a research study, with different participants in different situations to see if the same finding can be reproduced

peer review

process where research is evaluated before it’s published to the public

ethical guidelines

established for clinical research to protect volunteer (confidentiality, debriefing, informed consent)

institutional review board

IRB, concerned with protecting the welfare, rights and privacy of individuals and animals. Charged with the responsibility of reviewing.

informed consent

agreement to participate in a procedure

informed assent

minors need to get informant assent (parents sign)

protection from harm

ensuring their physical safety, privacy rights, during any psychological research.

confidentiality of participants

keeping results and information from the public and keeping it private

confederates

someone on your side (ally or accomplice)

debriefing

explaing the purpose of the study to the participants after the study

central tendency

mean: average of values

median: middle value

mode: most frequent number

measures of variation

range: difference between high and low values

standard deviation: a measure of how many scores

normal curve (percentages and percentiles)

graph with smooth, symmetrical lines.

positive and negative skews

positive: skewed to the right

negative: skewed to the left

bimodal distributions

type of distribution characterized by 2 distinct peaks

regression towards the mean

statistical phenomenon describing how variables much higher or lower than the mean are closer to the mean measured a second time.

Statistical significance

how likely an experimental results occurred due to chance

effect sizes

strength of a relationship between 2 variables.

larger effect sizes=the more one variable can be explained by another

cognitive biases: hindsight bias

I knew it all alone phenomenon co

cognitive biases: overconfidence

tendency to overestimate our knowledge and abilities in a certain area

cognitive biases: confirmation bias

tendency to process information by looking for or interpreting information that is consistent

nature

genetics, DNA, etc

nurture

external factors that influence physical, behavioral and mental traits

genetic predisposition

means that there is an increased chance that a person will develop a particular disease

evolutionary perspective

how the natural selection of traits contributes to passing on genes.

eugenics

scientifically inaccurate theory that humans can be improved. “In addition to” genetics, how the environment influences gene expression

twin studies

can’t experiment with nature vs nurture. are studies that are conducted on identical or fraternal twins

central nervous system

Brain: controls how we think and learn

Spine: carries messages back and forth between the brain and the nerves that run throughout the body.

peripheral nervous system

connects CNS to limbs and organs, allowing communication

somatic nervous system

skeletal muscles

autonomic nervous system

controls glands and muscles

sympathetic nervous system

“fight or flight” arouses body in scary situations

parasympathetic nervous system

calms after “fight or flight” called “rest and digest”

Glial cell

-glue cells

-not part of the neuron

-supports the neuron, provide nutrients and myelin

neurons

basic building block of the nervous system

relfex arc

the basic unit of reflex, which involves neural pathways acting on an impulse before that impulse has reached the brain.

sensory neurons

nerve cells that are activated by sensory input from the environment.

motor neurons

cells in the brain and spinal cord that allow us to do movements by sending commands to the brain to the muscles

interneurons

a type of neuron that are located between sensory neurons and motor neurons

Neural transmission: all or nothing principle

you cannot part fire a neuron

More sensation=more neurons firing more often

Action potential

a rapid sequence of changes in voltage across a membrane

depolarization

a change within a cell when it becomes positive pr less negative.

refractory period

refers to the period of time during which the response to a second stimulus is significantly slowed

resting potential

the state of a neuron when its being stimulated or sending signals

reuptake

unused neurotransmitters reabsorbed into the sending neurotransmitter.

Firing threshold

self generating action potential is triggered. causing the membrane potential to reverse and become briefly positive.

dopamine

Excitatory, increase likelihood of action potential (speeds up), rewards and motivation

serotonin

Inhibitory, decrease likelihood of action potential (slows down)

norepinephrine

Excitatory, increase likelihood of action potential (speeds up)

glutamate

Excitatory, increase likelihood of action potential (speeds up)

GABA

Inhibitory, decrease likelihood of action potential (slows down)

endorphins

released in pain or stress block pain signals, endorphins attached to opioid receptors dopamine is released

substance p

related to stress response, immune system, inflammatory response, and pain. (works alongside glutamate)ac

acetycholine

muscle action, learning and memory

hormones

chemical messengers

adreneline

“fight or flight response”

leptin

a hormone your body releases that helps it maintain your normal weight on a long term basis.

ghrelin

a hormone produced by your stomach

melatonin

a hormone that your brain produced in response to darkness, helps you sleep

oxytocin

hormone that produces good feelings, empathy, trust and relationship building.

Minimal deception

to pose no more risk to participants in a study