Criminal Justice Research Methods: Ethics, Causality, and Design

Experiential Reality

What we know from direct personal experience.

Agreement Reality

What we accept as real because others (tradition/authority) say so and society agrees.

Empirical Research

Knowledge based on observation or experience, requiring both logical and empirical support.

Personal Human Inquiry

Everyday inquiry using personal experience and assumptions; assumes future circumstances are conditioned by present ones, and cause-effect patterns are probabilistic.

Secondhand Knowledge

Knowledge gained from others.

Tradition

'Everybody knows it' - knowledge passed down; provides a starting point but may hinder inquiry.

Authority

Trusting experts; helpful but risky if authority is wrong or outside their expertise.

Inaccurate Observations

Sloppy or mistaken observations; science emphasizes careful, deliberate observation.

Overgeneralization

Assuming broad patterns from too few observations; corrected by large, representative samples and replication.

Selective Observation

Only noticing events that fit our beliefs; science combats this by pre-specifying observations.

Illogical Reasonings

Faulty logic like the gambler's fallacy or 'exception proves the rule.'

Ideology and Politics

Beliefs and politics can bias research questions and interpretations.

Exploration

Investigating issues with little prior knowledge.

Description

Defining the scope, prevalence, or characteristics of a problem.

Explanation

Answering 'why' questions and identifying cause-effect relationships.

Application

Using findings to evaluate policies and anticipate effects.

Logic

Rational reasoning.

Observation

Empirical evidence.

Theory

Logic.

Data Collection

Observation.

Data Analysis

Patterns.

Probabilistic

Cause-effect relationships are not absolute; effects are more likely when causes are present.

Aggregate

Social science studies groups/patterns, not just individuals.

Attribute

A characteristic or quality (e.g., male, female, married).

Variable

A logical grouping of attributes (e.g., gender, marital status).

Causation

When change in one variable influences change in another.

Independent Variable

The cause or influencer.

Dependent Variable

The effect or outcome.

Idiographic Explanation

Exhaustively explains one unique case.

Nomothetic Explanation

Explains general patterns across cases using fewer variables.

Inductive Reasoning

From specific observations → general patterns.

Deductive Reasoning

From general theory → specific observations.

Quantitative

Numerical data; allows for statistical tests and generalization.

Qualitative

Non-numerical; provides depth and richness of meaning.

Objective

Independent of personal bias.

Subjective

Based on personal attitudes or opinions.

Intersubjective Agreement

If several observers agree something is real, it is treated as objective.

Hypothesis

A specific, testable expectation about reality.

Relationship between theory, research, and public policy

Theory guides research, research findings shape policy, and policies are tested through research.

Ethical

Conforming to professional standards of right and wrong.

Do No Harm

Research should not cause physical, psychological, or emotional harm.

Voluntary Participation

Participation must be freely chosen.

Anonymity

Researcher cannot identify individuals from their data.

Confidentiality

Researcher can identify individuals but keeps information private.

Difference between Anonymity and Confidentiality

Anonymity = no link possible; Confidentiality = link exists but is not disclosed.

Why might researchers deceive subjects?

To avoid biasing responses when knowing the true purpose would affect behavior.

Ethical Obligations to Scientific Community

Limitations: Must report weaknesses in research design.

Null Findings

Must report when no relationship is found; negative results are valuable.

Special Problems in Implementing Research

Staff Misbehavior: Discovering illegal/unethical practices by staff (e.g., parole officers).

Research Can Cause Crime

Studies may unintentionally encourage or relocate crime.

Withholding Desirable Treatments

Keeping proven benefits from control groups is unethical.

The National Research Act (1974)

Established protections for human subjects in research.

The Belmont Report (1979)

Set ethical principles.

Respect for Persons

Informed consent and special protection for vulnerable groups.

Beneficence

Maximize benefits and avoid harm.

Justice

Fair distribution of risks and benefits.

Professional Codes of Ethics

Guidelines (ASA, ACJS) for acceptable professional conduct.

Institutional Review Boards (IRBs)

Committees that review research involving humans.

IRB Purposes

Assess risks vs. benefits; ensure safeguards for participants.

IRB Requirements

All human-subjects research must be reviewed or approved for exemption.

Informed Consent

Subjects must understand research purpose, risks, benefits, and procedures before agreeing.

Requirements for Informed Consent

Must be voluntary, informed, and given by someone with capacity to consent.

Special Populations

Juveniles - require parental and youth consent; Prisoners - protections from coercion and undue influence.

Ethical Guidelines Violated in Stanford Prison & Milgram Experiments

Do No Harm, voluntary participation, deception, and lack of fully informed consent.

Main Purpose of Scientific Enterprise

To logically and empirically explain social phenomena.

Social Science is Inherently

Probabilistic.

Criteria for Causality

Correlation (variables must be related), Temporal Order (cause before effect), Non-Spuriousness (no third-variable explanation).

Spuriousness

When a third factor explains the observed relationship.

How to Know if X Causes Y

Establish correlation, correct temporal order, and rule out spuriousness.

Correlation

A statistical relationship between variables.

Correlation vs. Causation

Correlation is necessary but not sufficient for causation.

Temporal Order

Cause must precede effect.

Necessary Cause

Condition must exist for effect to occur.

Sufficient Cause

Condition guarantees the effect.

Validity

Accuracy of measurement and conclusions.

Types of Validity Concerned with General Issues in Research Design

Statistical Conclusion Validity, External Validity, Internal Validity, Construct Validity.

Statistical Conclusion Validity

Are findings statistically accurate?

External Validity

Can findings generalize to other populations/settings?

Internal Validity

Are effects really due to the independent variable?

Construct Validity

Are concepts measured accurately?

Units of Analysis

Individuals, Groups, Organizations, Social Artifacts.

Problems with Units of Analysis

Ecological Fallacy, Individual Fallacy, Reductionism.

Ecological Fallacy

Group-level results misapplied to individuals.

Individual Fallacy

Individual results misapplied to groups.

Reductionism

Oversimplifying explanations by focusing on one cause.

Research Design for Assessing Temporal Order

Cross-Sectional, Longitudinal, Retrospective Studies, Prospective Studies.

Cross-Sectional

Data collected at one point in time.

Longitudinal

Data collected over time.

Trend Studies

Examine population changes over time.

Cohort Studies

Study specific subgroups across time.

Panel Studies

Follow the same individuals over time.

Retrospective Studies

Looking backward in time, asking subjects about past events or examining past records.

Prospective Studies

Following subjects into the future to see how events unfold over time.

How do These Research Designs Assess Temporal Order?

Retrospective studies reconstruct past time order through memory or records; Prospective studies directly observe events as they occur.