APES Chapters 1-10

Ogallala Aquifer

Big aquifer being drainer faster than replenished.

Saltwater Intrusion

When the pumping of freshwater out of a well is faster than recharge. Near Coastel areas this can cause salt water to infiltrate the aquifer.

Unconfined Aquifers

More prone to change, experience higher rates of pollution

Surface Water

Streams, rivers, ponds, lakes, and wetlands.

Floodplains

River overflows, flooding surrounding land, depositing nutrients and enriching soils (by year).

Lakes

Can be freshwater or saltwater.

-Form in depression where precipitation collects

-Can arise from techtonic activity

Ex. Caspian Sea

-Was part of the ocean, became isolated when the surrounding area rose up

-Higher salt concentration

Flooding and Drought

Drought leads to erosion

-Soil becomes dry and lighter

-Loss of plant life to anchor soil down

-Human Influence (Dust Bowl) poor farmin technique

-Flooding augmented by impermeable surfaces like pavement.

Olgiotrophic Productivity

Low amounts of nutrients such as Phosporous and Nitrogen.

Mesotrophic Productivity

Moderate level of productivity

Eutrophic Productivity

High levels of productivity (lots of algae deadly for fish.)

Levees

An enlarged bank built up on each side of the river

Ex. Mississippi River

Dikes

Similar to a levee built to prevent ocean waters from flooding. Pumps can be used to remove water that bypasses.

Ex. Denmark the past 2,000 years

Levee Effects

- Reduce flood plan fertility and encourage development

- Sediments carried to river mouth

- Redirect floodwater elsewhere

Dams

A barrier that runs across a river or stream to control flow of water.

Reservoir

Area where water is stored behind dam.

Ex. Hoover Dam/Lake Mead, 3 Gorges Dam in China

Dam Effects

Interrupts fish migration so fish ladders were created

Fish Ladders

A set of stairs with water flowing over them that have been added to same dams to help migrating fish.

Ex. Salmon up stream

Aqueducts

Canals and ditches that move waters from one location to another.

- Can fragment landscapes

- Loss of water throught leakage and evaporation

Desalination

Removing salt from salt water

Ex. Distillation or Reverse Osmosis

Water Availability Per Capita

Amount of water available per person varies around the world. North America and Middle East are regions with the lowest amounts of fresh water. These countries represent around 5% of world population, but only have less than 1% of fresh water availability.

Water Footprint

Total daily per capita use of freshwater.

- 3x larger in US than Kenya

- U.S, China, Pakistan, and India account for less than 50% of irrigated lands globally around 43% of population.

Agriculture

The largest user of water around the world.

Furrow Irrigation

Trench flodded with water 65% efficient

Flood Irrigation

Entire field flooded with water 70-80% efficient

Spray Irrigation

Apparatus sprays water across field. 75-95% efficient

Drip Irrigation

Slow dripping hose laid on or beneath soil and controls weed population.

Irrigation

Supply of water to land or crops to help growth. Greatest consumer of freshwater globally. Expand supply of arable land.

Hydroponics

Cultivation under greenhouse conditions.

- Less pesticides

- Grows all year

• Roots planted in a nutrient-rich solution, no soil

• Water recycled 95% less water than irrigation methods.

• More expensive but better results

Industry

2nd largest user of water worldwide

- 50% of water used in US is to generate electricity

- Metal refinement and paper production

Household Use

Accoutns for 10% of US water consumption.

Indoor Use

Drinking water represents only a small portion

- Many people (1 billion) lacks access to clean water

Water Ownership

People can have rights to water use but they don’t own water.

- Right to use vs. ownership

• India/Bangladesh River Diversion

  • Open water market in Chile

Water Conservation

Using techniques such as more efficient water fixtures, faucetsm and washing machines.

- Lower water flush toilets, front loading washer, collect rainwater, wastewater (grey water) for irrigation.

Which of the following factors would most likely contribute to the oxygen conditions observed in the Long Island Sound?

Restricted Circulation

Based on the image, which of the following conclusions can best be drawn to describe the conditions in the Long Island Sound?

The sound has large numbers of phytoplankton blooms that are decomposing and consumed by respiring bacteria.

Which of the following is an expected consequence of runoff and sewage in an aquatic environment?

Decreased oxygen production by seaweed on the seafloor from an increase in turbidity

Turbidity

The quality of being cloudy, opaque, or thick with suspended matter.

Which of the following irrigation methods is most likely to result in salinization of the soil, especially if the agricultural fields are located in a warm climate with consistent sunlight?

Furrow Irrigation

Demography

The study of human population and population trends.

• Factors that drive human population growth

  ( Changes in population size, fertility, life expectancy, age structure, migration)

Immigration

Movement of people into a country.

Emigration

Movement of people out of a country.

Crude Birth Rate (CBR)

Number of births per 1,000 individuals per year.

Crude Death Rate (CDR)

Number of deaths per 1,000 individuals per year

Doubling Time

70/Growth Rate

Ex. Some population doubling

Thomas Malhus Theory

Human population is increasing exponentially, food is increasing linearly, will eventually reach carrying capacity.

Calculating Global Growth Rate

-CBR= 20 births per 1000

-CDR= 8 deaths per 1000

Growth Rate=CBR-CDR= 20/1000-8/1000 =1.2%

(CBR-CDR)/10

Growth Rate of Single Nation

(CBR+ Immigration)-(CDR+ Emigration)/10`

Total Fertility Rate

Est. of an average number of children that each woman in a population will bear.

Replacement Level Fertility

Total fertility rate required to offset average number of deaths in a population fo current population size to be stable.

Developed Countries

Countries with relatively high levels of industrialization and income.

Developing Countries

Countries with low levels of industrialization and income of less than $3 per person per day.

Life Expectancy

Average number of years that an infant born in a particular year in a county can be expected to live, given current average life span and death rate of that country.

Infant Mortality Rate

Number of deaths of children under age 5 per 1000 live births.

• Devloped nations have high IMR (Liberia and Bolivia)

  • Can vary by socioeconomic status (Ex. African Americans vs. Caucasions)

Population Momentum

Continued population growth reduction measures have been implementd.

Ex. War causing boomers to have kids and then their kids have kids.

Population Pyramid

Developing Nations

• Higher total fertility rates

Population Pyramid

Slow Growth

• Even distribution of ages

• little difference between number of individuals in each group

• Slow or zero growth

  • Higher education and health care

Population Pyramid

Zero Growth or Disease

• Inverted Pyramid

• Majority of Population past reproductive age

  • Decrease in population size

Net Migration Rate

Difference between immigration and emigration in a given year per 1000 people in a country.

Theory of demographic transition

As a country moves from a subsistence economy to industrialization and increased affluence it undergoes a predictable shift in population growth.

Affluence

Having stuff

Ex. shoes or health care

Theory of demographic transition Phase 1

Exsisting (high birth rate and high death rate) slow population growth.

Theory of demographic transition Phase 2

Rapid population growth because birth rates remain high but death rates decline due to better snitation, clean drinking waterm increaseed access to food and goods and access to health care.

Theory of demographic transition Phase 4

Choose to have fewer kids population level out. Affluence developes encourages women to delay having kids.

Theory of demographic transition Phase 3

Stable population growth as an economy and education system improves people have fewer kids.

Family Planning

The regulation of the number of or the spacing of offspring through use to to Birth Control.

• Studies show education of mothers bring down the average number of births per women.

  Ex. Ethiopian women with secondary schooling have a lower total fertility rate compared to a higher fertility rate among uneducated women.

IPAT

Impact= Population x Affluence x Technology

• Greater population size= higher enviromental impact

• Greater affluence= greater enviromental impact

  • Technology can degrade the enviroment and provide solutions to protect it. Mostly focuses on destructive technology.

In Urban Areas

½ of the world lives in urban areas but consumes ¾ of the worlds resources.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

Measured value of all products and services produced in one country per year.

Four parts: Consumer spending, Investments, Government spending and exports, Imports

• Per Capita GDP correlates positively with pollution. Can reach a point where they can regulate pollution.

  • Increasing GDP could be a solution to environmental damage: greater affluence= a lower birth rate and wealthier nations can afford to protect the environment.

Global and Local Impact

• Developing nations typically use land and forest resources. Expanding populations and therefore more land is used for farming and forests and cut down.

• Ex. Brazil cutting down tress for farming, but farming sucks in Brazil.

  • Developed nations use fewer local resources than developing nations and have greater global impacts and greater environmental cost because of more importation.

Sustainability

the need for enviromental change.

Demographic Transition

Transition of a country from undeveloped or developing to a developed country as birth and death rates decrease.

When the fertility goes from 5.9 to 2.3 what has most likely occurred?

Women had increased education opportunities and had children later on.

Replacement level fertility

The total fertility rate exactly replaces previous population.

Lower Deaths=

Acheivement of replacement level fertility.

Population Size

Total number of individuals per unit area at a given time.

Population Density

Number of individuals per unit area at a given time.

Population Distribution

How individuals are distributed with respect to one another. (Random Distribution, Uniform Distribution, and Clumped Distribution.)

Population Sex Ratio

Male to Female

Population Age Structure

How many individuals fit into a particular age categories.

Density Dependant Factors

The size of population will influence on individuals probabliity of survival. Usually resource driven factors like food supply and space.

Limiting Resources

A resource that a population cannot live without and that occurs in a quantity lower than population would require to increase in size.

Carrying Capacity (K)

Limit of how many individuals in a population the environment can sustain. Horizontal line on a population graph. If food becomes scarce the population will experience an overshoot by becoming larger than the spring carrying capacity and will result in a die-off or population crash.

Density Independant Factors

The size of population has no effect on the individuals probability of survival (Ex. natural disasters like wildfires) enviromental factors have no bearing on density of individuals.

Population Growth Models

A mathematical equation that can be used to predict population size at a given time.

Population Growth Rate

Number of offspring an individual can produce in a time period minus the deaths of an individual or its offspring during the same period.

Intrinsic Growth Rate

Maximum potential growth under ideal conditions with unlimited resources.

Exponential Growth

J Shaped Curve- Exponential Growth Model creates J like graph.

• Nt=Noert

Logistic Growth Curve

When population whose growth is initially exponential but slows as the population approches the carrying capacity.

K Selected Species

Population of a species that grows slowly until it reaches carrying capacity (Ex. Elephants, Whales, and Humans) K=kangaroos

R Selected Species

Population of a species that grows quickly and is often followed by overshoots and die-offs (Ex. Mosquitoes and Dandelions) R=Rodents

Herbivory

Animals preying on plants

Mutualism

A type of interspecific interaction where both species benefit.

Commensalism

A type of relationship in which one species benefits but the other is neither harmed nor helped.

Keystone Species

A species that plays a role in the community that is far more important than its relative abundance might suggest.

Ecological Succession

The predictable replacement of one group of species by another group of species over time.

Primary Ecological Succession

Can start from sand. Occurs on a surface that is devoid of soil. Ex. Lichen and Moss (Pioneer Species)

Secondary Ecological Succession

Can start where soil is already present due to a forest fire or abandoned land. Plant life that occurs in areas that have been disturbed but have not lost their soil.

Pioneer Species

A species that can colonize new areas rapidly and grow well in full sunlight.

Climax Stage

Late sucession stage of a forest dominated by shade tolerant species. Can be reset at any time by an evennt that opens the canopy.

Aquatic Succession

Coastal areas are constantly being reshaped by storms. Lakes can fill over time.