Paper 1 section C: Challenges of an urbanising world

Why do rates of urbanisation vary globally and what are future projections of global urbanisation?

• Rate of natural increase (birth rates v death rates)

• Government policies

• Environment

Generally the fastest rates of urbanisation are in developing countries.

Urbanisation is predicted to continue at a fast rate in regions that still have large rural populations; by 2050 the majority of people in every global region are predicted to live in urban areas.

What is natural increase?

The growth in a population because the birth rate is higher than the death rate

What is a megacity?

An urban area with a population of 10 million or more

Describe the global patterns of megacities

(size, location, growth rates)

• Size: Since 1980, the number of megacities has increased rapidly from just 9 to 35. Largest megacities have populations of well over 20 million.

• More than 2/3 of megacities are in developing and emerging countries. Asia has the most due to very large populations and rapid industrialisation

• Fastest growth rates are in emerging/developing countries in Africa and South Asia. Growth rates of megacities in developed countries are slow or stable.

What is urban primacy?

Urban primacy is when one city (primate city) dominates the country that it’s in economically, politically and culturally.

Many megacities are primate cities.

They usually have significantly larger populations than other cities

Describe how primate cities influence a country

Economically and politically

Economically:

• Investment - businesses often locate there, attracting investment in infrastructure and services

• Migration - high skilled workers are attracted there

• Transport - international airports and ports are often located there, encouraging further migration and investment

This takes away money and economic development from the rest of the country.

Politically:

• Governments and the headquarters of large, powerful businesses are often located there; this means that decisions about development favour the primate city over the rest of the country

What is migration the result of?

Push and pull factors

Give the push and pull factors for migration

Push:

• Shortage of employment

• Low paying employment

• Poor healthcare

• Poor education

• War or conflict

• Natural disasters

• Poor environment (due to pollution or crime)

Pull:

• Abundance of employment

• High paying employment

• Good healthcare

• Good education

• Better standards of living

• Safe place with little crime or risk of natural disasters

• Peaceful political climate

• Cleaner environment

What two processes contribute to the growth or decline of cities?

• Economic change

• Migration (national and international)

What is meant by economic change?

A change in the types of jobs, industries, investment and income in a country/city

What is meant by growth/ decline of cities?

Growth:

• population increase

• increasing physical size (eg. urban sprawl)

• increasing economic activity

Decline:

• population decrease

• decreasing economic activity

• decreasing services

• decreasing physical condition

Explain how economic change and migration (national and international) contribute to the growth/ decline of cities in developing countries

Cities in developing countries are growing.

Economic change leads to migration; both of these can lead to the growth and decline of cities.

Growth of some urban cities:

• Mechanisation means that fewer farm workers are needed. This leads to national migration as people move to urban areas to seek better jobs. There are lots of opportunities in the informal sector in developing countries for low-skilled migrants from rural areas.

• Governments/NGOs invest in infrastructure and transport in urban cities allowing trade to be focused there. This provides lots of jobs.

• New manufacturing industries appear in cities, providing lots of jobs

These urban opportunities pull people into urban areas.

Decline of other cities:

• Investment is focused on one major (primate) city, leaving others behind as people migrate out of surrounding cities and rural areas, leading to a decline in population and services.

• Rural towns lose industries as they cannot compete with big cities

Overall: cities growing

Explain how economic change and migration (national and international) contribute to the growth/ decline of cities in emerging countries

Some cities in emerging countries are growing and some have stabilising populations.

Economic change leads to migration; both of these can lead to the growth and decline of cities.

Growth of some urban cities:

• rapid industrialisation, leading to lots of manufacturing jobs

• large scale FDI from TNCs

• expansion of tertiary industries

• massive infrastructure investments

These economic changes create pull factors, attracting migrants.

Decline of other cities:

• other cities don’t receive as much investment, so people migrate out of them and therefore those cities decline in population and services; regions without transport and infrastructure investment will stagnate

Overall: some cities growing, some stabilising

Explain how economic change and migration (national and international) contribute to the growth/ decline of cities in developing countries

Some cities in developed countries have stable populations and others are declining.

Economic change leads to migration; both of these can lead to the growth and decline of cities.

Many cities have already grown rapidly in the past, so economic change continues but is less dramatic. High employment levels and good services reduce the need for mass rural-urban migration.

• Shift to tertiary and quaternary services, after de-industrialisation

• Regeneration and infrastructure investments maintain equality

Decline of some cities:

• De-industrialisation has led to the decline of industrial areas, meaning that people lose jobs. This leads to national migration as people have to move elsewhere to find employment

• Low paid workers are attracted to higher paying employment in the more urban areas

Overall: Some cities have stable populations and others are declining

Name the three ways in which urban economies vary

• formal versus informal employment

• relative importance of economic sectors

• working conditions

Define the two types of employment

Formal: officially recognised jobs where there is a fixed pay and legal protections for workers (eg. number of hours that can be worked, age of workers, health and safety). Workers pay tax to the government out of the wages they earn.

Informal: jobs that are not officially recognised and are not taxed or regulated by the government. People often work long hours in dangerous conditions for little pay.

Name and explain the four different economic sectors

Primary: collecting raw materials (eg. farming, fishing, mining, forestry)

Secondary: turning a product into another product, manufacturing (eg. making textiles, furniture, chemicals, cars)

Tertiary: providing a service (nursing, retail, police force, transport, teaching)

Quaternary: knowledge economy where scientists and researches investigate and develop new products (eg. research and development)

Create a table that shows how the urban economies for developing, emerging and developed countries vary by level of development

(Hint: informal versus informal employment, relative importance of economic sectors, working conditions)

Developing countries’ urban economies:

• Many workers are employed in the informal sector

• Lots of people work in low-skilled tertiary sector (eg. on market stalls). Few people work in the secondary sector as there’s not enough money to invest in the technology needed for this type of industry. Small percentage of people work in high-skilled tertiary jobs

• Poor working conditions, low pay, long hours, may be dangerous, no job security

Emerging countries’ urban economies:

• Formal employment increases due to factories and offices, so the number of people working in informal employment decreases.

• Employment in the secondary sector is high as TNCs invest in infrastructure for factories and manufacturing. Lots of low skilled tertiary jobs, however more high-skilled tertiary jobs are being created.

• Conditions improve and workers’ rights increase. Better pay.

Developed countries’ urban economies:

• Very few workers in the informal sector

• Dominated by the tertiary sector because there’s a skilled and educated workforce and a high demand for services. Some employment in the quaternary sector due to high skilled labour and the money to invest in technology needed

• Conditions are good, pay is high and workers have many rights protected by law

Explain why developing countries’ urban economies are the way they are

Most people work in informal employment because there are very few formal jobs

Due to low investment, low technology and low education
Very little people work in the secondary sector as there is too little money to invest in the infrastructure and technology needed for manufacturing, therefore it is dominated by primary and low level-tertiary industries.

Explain why emerging countries’ urban economies are the way they are

Investment from TNCs and improving technology means more formal jobs and slightly better conditions. However, there is still a large informal economy due to low-skilled rural migrants migrating to urban areas.

Due to rapid industrialisation, the secondary sector dominates but due to the increasing amount of FDI from TNCs, tertiary sectors are growing.

Explain why developed countries’ urban economies are the way they are

High levels of investment, technology and a highly-skilled and educated workforce means that high-skilled tertiary and quaternary sector dominates.
Most urban employment is formal and high-paying due to the highly skilled workforce.

What is urbanisation and give the effects of this. Define urban sprawl.

The increase in the proportion of the population living in built-up urban areas.

(Urban sprawl: the uncontrolled, outward spread of urban areas into the surrounding countryside as population increases)

Effects:

• rapid growth in urban populations

• expansion often exceeds city infrastructure (leading to slums etc.)

• cities grow and take up more land into rural areas (urban sprawl)

What is suburbanisation and give the effects of this

The outward movement of people, businesses and services from the middle of the city to the edges

Effects:

• growth of commuter towns

• lower population density in city centre

What is industrialisation and deindustrialisation and give the effects of deindustrialisation

Industrialisation: where a country moves from an agricultural means of production to a manufacturing means of production

De-industrialisation: where a country moves away from manufacturing industries as the service sector grows to become dominant (and instead rely on cheaper imports from other countries)

Effects:

• loss of industrial jobs

• depopulation

• rise in derelict areas, brownfield sites

What is counter-urbanisation and give the effects of this

The movement of people away from urban areas to smaller settlements and rural areas.

(Better quality of life, more green space, lower house prices, improved communication + transport services for commuting and working from home)

Effects:

• urban population growth slows or stabilises

• population increases in smaller towns, rural villages

What is regeneration and give the effects of this

Redeveloping and revitalising areas that have experienced urban decay or decline

Effects:

• population increase in previously declining areas

• increasing younger population

• good infrastructure and services

What are the different types of land use?

• Commercial (developed for business, focused on generating profit through buying, selling, trading goods or services eg. offices, shopping, hotels)

• Industrial (manufacturing and production eg. warehouses, factories)

• Residential (for housing people eg. flats, apartments)

Explain the different factors that influence land use type

Availability, accessibility, cost, planning regulations

Availability: refers to whether land is physically free to use; some areas may be occupies, in high demand or physically unsuitable for development

Accessibility: refers to how easy it is to reach the location for people, goods and services. Land near roads, railways, airports or public transport is more desirable

Cost: how expensive

Planning regulations: local governments create rules that control what can be built and where which developers must follow

Describe the site, situation and connectivity of Lagos in a national (environmental, cultural), regional and global context.

In the context of development

Site:

• Located on the south west coast of Nigeria on the Atlantic OCean

• Is a low lying coastal area with lagoons and wetlands

  • Provides it with access to maritime trade, making it a central economic hub for trade and commerce in West Africa

  • It being low lying and having flat terrain makes it easy to build infrastructure for industry and transport; however flooding is a growing urban challenge

Situation:

• Borders Benin, Niger, Chad and Cameroon; very close to many major West African economies

• Next to the Atlantic Ocean

  • Facilitates regional and international trade, and attracts investment and trade

  • Attracts migrants

  • Strong cultural influence on Nigeria (Nollywood, music)

Connectivity:

• Many ports and international airports

  • Provides raw materials for local industries and attracts trade and investment

  • Facilitates regional and global trade via the Atlantic Ocean

Lagos is the main financial centre of West Africa; the city contains 80% of Nigeria’s industry and lots of global company headquarters are located there.

Centre of Nigerian film industry ‘Nollywood’ and a thriving music scene, giving it cultural importance.

Describe Lago’s city structure in terms of its functions and building age

CBD (Lagos Island)

• Commercial and financial activities

• Corporate headquarters

• Modern high-rise offices and high-end hotels

• Mixture of colonial era and modern high rise buildings

Inner city:

• Supports both residential needs and emerging commercial functions

• Older, high density, low quality housing

• Industrial factories

• Mostly mid 1900s buildings, however tech driven revitalisation has brought in modern facilities and housing

Suburbs:

• Modern, high class residential

• Commercial (shopping malls, etc.)

• Mostly modern buildings

Rural-urban fringe:

• Sprawling, low density small towns and new housing developments

• Agricultural land

• New industrial developments

• Mix of traditional, rural-style homes and newly developed modern housing estates

Explain reasons for past and present trends in population growth for Lagos

In the past:

• Historically, in colonial times it was a centre of trade, so attracted traders and merchants to the city

• 1960s-1990s: in the past, there was rapid economic development, and the export of oil made some people very wealthy, so the government had more money to finance lots of construction projects, leading to rapid urbanisation as there was large amounts of rural-urban migration due to new job opportunities.

• High rates of natural increase due to poor healthcare and lack of education

Present:

• Rural-urban migration (push and pull factors)

  • Job opportunities

  • Higher wages

  • Education

  • Well connected by air, sea and roads

  • Rapid growth of city = many construction jobs

  • Increased mechanisation in rural regions

• Regional migration as bordering countries are poor and involved in conflict

• National migration from the northern states of Nigeria where there is lots of ethnic and religious conflict and high levels of poverty

• International migration from developed countries who are employed by foreign businesses operating in Lagos

• High rates of natural increase

Explain how population growth has affected the pattern of spatial growth and changing urban functions and land use in Lagos

The city has expanded outwards from the CBD (Lagos island):

• Caused urban sprawl as the city has spread onto low-cost land

• Increased building on the urban-rural fringe and previously empty areas are now build on (eg. informal settlements are build on areas of wasteland)

• Increased demand on housing = high density housing and informal settlements

• Some informal settlements have been cleared by the government to allow the development of formal, desirable settlements

Explain the opportunities for living in Lagos

Employment, healthcare, education, energy + water,

Employment:

• Incomes are about 4 times higher

• Rapid growth of the city means there are lots of construction jobs

• Huge populations means that there is a large market for services

• Large amount of informal jobs for unskilled migrants (eg. fishing industry)

• Home to country’s banks, corporations and manufacturing industries

Healthcare:

• More healthcare centres and hospitals

• Better range of medicines

Education:

There are more schools and universities in Lagos, and an overall better access to and quality of education.

• Lagos has 6 universities

Energy + water access:

• In Lagos, water treatment plants provide safe water piped directly to areas of the city

• Access to electricity allows people to develop their own businesses

• Clean water = health = quality of life = economic productivity = taxes etc.

Explain the challenges of living in Lagos

Informal settlements:

• Over 60% of Lagos’ population live in informal settlements

• Built illegally, so people face eviction

• No access to services

• High levels of crime, patrolled by gangs

Limited services:

• Aren’t enough schools or healthcare facilities (eg. one school in Makoko)

• People cannot afford to send their children to school or pay for healthcare treatment

Traffic congestion:

• Very little investment in transport infrastructure

• Public transport is limited

• CBD is on an island with only three bridges linking it to the rest of the city, highly polluted, health conditions

Poor employment conditions:

• Aren’t enough formal jobs to go around, so 60% of people work in the informal sector

• No protection or job security, low wages, long hours etc.

Waste disposal:

• Most of city doesn’t have sewers, communal toilets where the waste is deposited into the lagoon, which causes health problems

• Only 40% of rubbish is officially collected; large uncontrolled rubbish dumps that lead to air and water pollution as it decomposes

Water supply:

• Only about 40% of the city is connected to the state water supply, often contaminated with sewage
  People have to pay inflated prices to get water from informal settlements

Describe the large inequalities between the rich and the poor in Lagos

Explain the political and economic challenges for managing Lagos

Rich:

• Wealthy people can afford better housing, live closer to work so can afford traffic jams, constant access to electricity due to personal powerful generators

Poor:

• Informal settlements near to polluting factories, electricity is not available so must cook on polluting stoves or small polluting petrol generators. Lack of waste disposal leads to high health risks

Political and economic challenges:

• Different development priorities (rich want investment in high class office space to relieve pressure on CBD, poor want housing improvement and more services)

• Corruption is very common in Nigera; the government can create laws (eg to regulate traffic), but the rich can ignore them and bribe the police if they get caught

• Wealthy elite are powerful; eg transport infrastructure proposals have been stopped by wealthy people who have business interests in lorries supplying the city

Name the city-wide government (top down) strategies for making Lagos more sustainable

Give the advantages and disadvantages of this

Improving water supply, improving waste disposal, reducing traffic congestion, improving air quality*

• Improving water supply ($2.5 billion plan including new water treatment plants and distribution networks)

• Two new rail lines are being developed to connect the CBD on Lagos Island to the rest of the city, reducing congestion (reducing commuter times and air pollution)

Advantages:

• Large improvements that affect the whole city

• Can carry out higher-cost projects that NGOs would struggle to fund

• Can address all areas of sustainability (economic, social, environmental)

• *Limits air/water pollution, supports health and therefore quality of life and economic productivity

Disadvantages:

• Very expensive, so they may have to borrow money (eg. Nigeria has to borrow $1 billion from the world bank to fund train line)

• May not have support from communities who may attempt to ignore or undermine the strategy (eg. removing informal settlements for cheap apartments)

• May not help the poorest within society

• Takes a very long time to be implemented

• Energy intensive, so bad for the environment

Name the community and NGO-led bottom up strategies for making Lagos more sustainable

Give the advantages and disadvantages of this

• Makoko floating school attempts to give some of the poorest children in Makoko access to free education and adapts to rising sea levels via floating, allowing children to gain better employment prospects outside of Makoko

• CHIEF is an NGO that aims to develop sustainable healthcare in deprived areas of Lagos by opening up community healthcare centres and running education projects to make people more aware of health issues

Advantages:

• The local community have a say so it has their support and can target the issues that they are most concerned with

• Often funded by donations from wealthy people/developed countries, so low cost to Nigerian government or local people

• Locally sourced materials, so better for environment

• Locals can help build it, giving them new skills

Disadvantages:

• Smaller scale, so projects reach fewer people

• Limited funds

• (Makoko floating school was destroyed in a storm in 2016 due to poor quality infrastructure)