Alveoli
stores O2 from the air; composed of simple squamous epithelial that allows for rapid diffusion of CO2 out and O2 into the blood; allows for evaporation of water out of the blood
Bronchioles
order of secondary, tertiary, and terminal; lead to alveolar ducts which leads to alveolar sacs to alveoli
Epiglottis
fold of cartilage that closes the trachea during swallowing
Ciliated Epithelia
lines interior surfaces of the nasal cavity; moves mucus and trapped contaminants to the back of the throat where they are swallowed and digested in the stomach
Conchae
occur laterally from the lateral walls of the nasal cavity; covered in mucosa and highly vascular to keep air warm and distribute WBCs; traps particles that may be inhaled; if it’s cold, it dries out the airways
Larynx
provides a switching mechanism between inspiration and swallowing; houses vocal cords for speech
Pharynx
connects nasal cavity and mouth
Nasopharynx
only serves to transport air; superior to level of the soft palate
Oropharynx
both swallowed food and air pass through; posterior to oral cavity
Laryngopharynx
serves to separate food and air; merging of esophagus and trachea
Glottis
the space between the vocal cords where air moves
Trachea
passageway for air into the lungs from the pharynx; rings of cartilage prevent collapse under the negative pressure of inhalation (rigid, but flexible); lined with mucosa and cilia which propels particles towards the throat to be swallowed
Alveolar duct
serve as passageways connecting the alveolar sacs and bronchioles; collect and direct the oxygen entering the alveoli and the carbon dioxide exiting the lungs
Alveolar sac
tiny air sacs at the end of the bronchioles; alveoli are where the lungs and the blood exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide during the process of breathing
Diffusion
oxygen going into the blood and CO2 leaving the blood to go into the lungs; happens at the alveoli
Intercostal Muscles
muscle between the ribs; contraction lifts the rib cage up to open it up and decrease the pressure inside the chest, causing air to rush in; gives the lungs more space to expand
Diaphragm
sheet of muscle that separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities; flexing causes it to drop and increase the empty volume of the thoracic cavity; negative pressure causses air to rush in and fill negative space; increase in volume = decrease in pressure
Visceral pleura
the outside of the lung; attached via pleural fluid to the parietal pleura
Pleural fluid
attaches lung to the parietal pleura to keep them from collapsing
Parietal pleura
inside surface of the pleural cavity
Alveolar surfactant
decreases the tension between water molecules (breaks the cohesiveness between molecules); reduces the force trying to pull individual alveolar walls together; since the alveoli are moist, the surface tension tries to collapse them
Respiratory volumes
volume of gas in the lungs at a given time during the respiratory cycle
Tidal
amount of air moved in and out under normal resting conditions
Inspiratory reserve
amount of air that can be inspired forcibly beyond the tidal volume
Expiratory reserve
volume that can be forcibly expired beyond the tidal volume
Residual Volume
air left in lungs, even after forced expiration
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures
gases exert a pressure in proportion to its concentration in a mixture; eg the more oxygen you’re getting in your lungs, the higher the pressure of the oxygen trying to force its way into your blood
Oxyhemoglobin
the oxygen-loaded form of hemoglobin
Deoxyhemoglobin
form of hemoglobin without oxygen
Henry’s Law
gas will dissolve into a liquid at a rate proportional to its partial pressure and vice-versa; concentration of a gas can increase its pressure (Dalton) which increases its ability to dissolve into a liquid (Henry)
Saturation
the amount of oxygen on binding sites of hemoglobin; partial pressure of O2, blood pH, and temperature affects it
Bohr Effect
increasing acidity (lower pH or presence of CO2) weakens the bond between hemoglobin and O2; when blood gets acidic, eg from exercising, it weakens the bonds so that more O2 can get to the hardest working muscle
COPD
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; a group of diseases that cause airflow blockage and breathing-related problems
Ventilation-perfusion coupling
must be an efficient match between the volume of air reaching alveoli and the blood flow in pulmonary capillaries; if you have a clogged alveoli or there’s not enough oxygen in a specific area, your vessels will constrict because it wants to be efficient and only send blood to parts where there will be enough O2 for the blood and will dilate in parts where there’s sufficient O2
inflation reflex
stretch receptors prevent lung over-inflation (inspiring too much air)
What influences respiratory rate? Know both higher brain and reflexive inputs that affect breathing
Chemoreceptors monitor blood pH and O2 levels. If there’s too much CO2, breathing rate will go up. Hypothalamus processes sensory input or limbic input (emotions); cortical controls (brain control) can consciously control respiration rate but will be overridden by brain stem when CO2 gets too high; reflexive would be coughing and sneezing, inflation reflex
What are the risk factors for lung cancer? COPD?
Smoking, air pollutants, asthma, and genetics
What factors can affect the diffusion of O2 into the blood?
Pressure gradients (vary with altitude), ventilation-perfusion coupling, thickness and surface area of respiratory membrane (thickening of this membrane can lead to respiration issues)
How is O2 carried from the lungs to body tissues? What about CO2?
O2 is pulled into the airways because of negative pressure, travelling into the alveoli. The capillary beds surrounding the individual alveolar sacs carry deoxygenated blood from the heart until oxygen diffuses into it. Oxygenated blood branches into the pulmonary veins, returning oxygenated blood into the heart. The heart will send blood to the body, except for the lungs, via the aorta; CO2, moving in the concentration gradient, is diffused out the capillaries into the alveoli to be exhaled. Pressure of CO2 is higher in capillaries than in the alveoli. CO2 is exhaled since partial pressure is higher in alveoli than the environment.
What forces prevent lungs from collapsing? What might cause them to collapse?
The pleural fluid attaches the visceral pleura to the parietal pleura to keep them from collapsing. Their elastic nature causes them to contract inwards. If there’s a puncture in the parietal pleura, it can cause the fluid to leak.
How might trauma or disease affect lung function in terms of respiratory volumes?
It can prevent the lungs from fulling expanding or the ability to inhale to the greatest capacity. flow