BIO 201- Exam 1- Ch. 1-6- Rio Salado With complete verified solutions + Rationales

Chapter 1

Principle of Complementarity

The function of the body reflects the anatomical structures

Levels of Organization that make up the human body

1. Chemical

2. Cellular

3. Tissue

4. Organ

5. Organ System

6. Organismal

Chemical

Atoms combine to form molecules

Cellular

Cells are made of molecules

Tissue

Consist of similar types of cells with a common function

Organ

Made up of different types of tissue

Organ System

Different organs that work together

Organismal

The human is made up of different types of organ systems

List the 11 organ systems

Integumentary system, Skeletal system, Muscular system, Nervous System, Endocrine system, Cardiovascular system, Lymphatic system/immunity, Respiratory system, Digestive system, Urinary system, Male/Female Reproductive system

Integumentary system

Hair, skin and nails. Sweat and oil glands. Synthesizes vitamin D. Protects deeper tissues from damage. Site of cutaneous receptors (pain, pressure, etc).

Skeletal system

Protects and supports body organs, stores minerals, provides a framework for muscles to use for movements, and blood cells are formed within bone.

Muscular System

Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, facial expression, and produces heat.

Nervous system

control system of the body- responds to external and internal changes by activating the right muscles and glands.

Endocrine system

secretes hormones that regulate growth process and nutrient usage by body cells.

Cardiovascular system

pumps blood; blood vessels transport blood which contains carbon dioxide, nutrients, waste, etc.

Lymphatic system

Immunity; picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to the blood, disposes of debri in the lymphatic vessels, houses white blood cells (lymphocytes) for immunity.

Respiratory system

Keeps blood constantly oxygenated and removes carbon dioxide, and gaseous exchanges occur in the walls of air sacs within the lungs.

Digestive System

Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells.

Urinary System

Eliminates nitrogenous waste from body; regulates water, electrolyte and acid-base balance of the blood.

Reproductive System

Production of offspring

Positive Feedback mechanisms

Positive feedback is when a system tends to increase output. The product of a reaction influences or increases the forward direction of the system: in positive feedback systems the presence of a product (or signal) results in an increase in the production (amplification) of that product (or signal).

Positive feedback example:

One common example of positive feedback is the network effect, where more people are encouraged to join a network the larger that network becomes. The result is that the network grows more and more quickly over time.

Negative feedback mechanisms

Negative feedback is when a system tends to reduce output or the product prevent the reaction from continuing: negative feedback (or feedback inhibition) systems, where the presence of a product of the system results in a decrease in the production of that product.

Negative feedback example:

* Neurons in the hypothalamus secrete thyroid releasing hormone (TRH), which stimulates cells in the anterior pituitary to secrete thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH).

* TSH binds to receptors on epithelial cells in the thyroid gland, stimulating synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones, which affect probably all cells in the body.

* When blood concentrations of thyroid hormones increase above a certain threshold, TRH-secreting neurons in the hypothalamus are inhibited and stop secreting TRH. This is an example of "negative feedback".

Example of homeostatic imbalance

Disease

Anatomy

Study of the structure of the human body

Physiology

Study of the functions of the human body

Anatomical position

standing human facing forward, with the feet together and the arms relaxed at the sides, with the palms out and the thumbs facing away from the body.

Axial

Head, neck and trunk which make up body's axis

Appendicular

Limbs (appendages) attached to body's axis

Superior (cranial)

Above; towards head or upper part of body

Inferior (caudal)

Towards lower part of body; below

Ventral (anterior)

Toward of at the front of the body; in front of

Dorsal (posterior)

Back of the body; behind

Medial

at or towards midline of body; on the inner side of

Lateral

away from midline; on the outer side of

Intermediate

between a more lateral and more medial structure

Proximal

closer to point of attachment to body

Distal

farther from point of attachment to the body

Deep

more internal

Median (midsaggital) plane

lays exactly in the midline of the body

Transverse plane

runs horizontally from right to left; divides body into superior and inferior

Front plane

Runs vertically, but divides body into anterior and posterior

Right hypochondriac region

Liver and gallbladder

Epigastric region

Stomach

Left hypochondriac region

Diaphragm

Right lumbar region

ascending colon of large intestine

umbilical region

Small intestine and transverse colon of large intestine

Left lumbar region

descending colon of large intestine

right iliac region

cecum

hypogastric (pubic) region

appendix and urinary bladder

Left iliac region

initial part of sigmoid colon

RUQ

Liver, gallbladder, head of pancreas, right kidney and adrenal gland, duodenum

LUQ

Stomach, spleen, body of pancreas, left kidney and adrenal gland,

RLQ

Cecum, appendix, ascending colon, right ovary, right ureter.

LLQ

descending colon, sigmoid colon, left ovary, left ureter

Chapter 2 and 3

The main part of the cell is called the NUCLEUS. This is

Cells structure and functions (in a nutshell)

The main part of the cell is called the NUCLEUS .where the action happens. Basically, it's your most important part of the cell structure. The red structures around the cell roaming freely are the MITOCHONDRIA. These are the structures that regulate the strength of a cell. The white, bone-like structures around the nucleus are the ECTOSKELETONS. They are the "bones" of the cell, acting like real bones to support the cell.

Chapter 4- Tissue

Epithelial Tissue

*Sheet of cells that covers the body surface

*covering epithelium and glandular epithelium

Epithelial Functions

secretion, filtration, absorption, excretion, protection, and sensory reception.

Characteristics of epithelial tissue ( 5)

1.Polarity- there is an apical surface which is an upper free surface exposed to body exterior or the cavity of an internal organ, and a lower attached basal surface. Apical-basal polarity- they differ in structure and function and are maintained by cytoskeleton of epithelia cells.

1. Apical surfaces

some are smooth and slick, and others contain microvilli which are fingerlike extensions of the plasma membrane. They line the kidney tubules and intestines and give a fuzzy look called a brush border. There is also cilia, which propels substances along their free surface (ex. trachea).

1. Basal surfaces

Basal lamina lies adjacent to the basal layer. Basal lamina acts as a selective filter by choosing which molecules from underlying connective tissue get to come up to the epithelia. It also acts as a place where epithelia cells come to repair a wound.

2. specialized contacts

epithelial cells fit close together with tight junctions and desmosomes to create a protection from apical surfaces diffusing into basal surfaces. Tight junctions keep the polarity stable.

3. Supported by connective tissue

Just deep to the basal lamina, is the reticular lamina. This is a layer of extracellular material containing network of collagen fibers that belongs to connective tissue. The basal and reticular lamina form to create the basement membrane which helps keep the epithelial from tearing or stretching outside of epithelial boundaries.

4. Avascular but innervated

No blood vessels, but the epithelial tissue is innervated which means it is supplied by nerve fibers).

5. Regeneration

Highest generation capacity

Simplified Epithelia

Single cell layer- found where absorption and filtration occur- thin layer is most desired

Stratified epithelia

one or more cell layers stacked on top of each other in areas of high abrasion where protection is most important (ex. lining of mouth and skin surface)

3 shapes of epithelial cells

squamous, cuboidal and columnar

Simple Squamous

flat and scalelike- close fitting (looks like tiled floor), line the kidneys and lungs where gaseous exchange in high amounts occurs

Two types of simple squamous

Endothelium- inner lining produces slick lining to reduce friction in lymphatic vessels, blood vessels and the heart. Capillaries contain only endothelium- the thin lining helps in exchange of nutrients and waste between bloodstream and surrounding tissue cells.

Mesothelium- found in serous membranes lining ventral body cavity and covering its organs.

Simple Cuboidal

single cell layer- secretion and absorption- forms walls of many kidney tubules and smallest ducts of glands. Looks like beads under a microscope.

Simple Columnar

single cell layer- oval nuclei- may contain mucus- secreting unicellular glands (goblet cells). propels mucus by ciliary action. lines digestive tract, gallbladder, some excretion ducts of glands, the ciliated parts line the small bronchi, uterine tubes, and some regions of uterus.

Pseudostratified columnar epithelium

single cell layer- nuclei seen at different levels, may contain goblet cells and bear cilia. secretion of mucus. Non ciliated forms Found in males sperm carrying ducts,

Stratified squamous epithelium

MULTIPLE layers of cells (only one)- very thick- superficial layer- protects underlying tissues and is subjected to abrasion- nonkeratinized lines esophagus, mouth and vagina, and keratinized forms epidermis (dry membrane).

Transitional epithelium

stretches readily and permits distension of urinary organ by contained urine. Lines ureters, bladder and part of urethra.

Endocrine versus Exocrine

Endocrine glands are ductless and secrete hormones. Exocrine glands are numerous and secrete products on skin surface. There is unicellular and multicellular exocrine glands. unicellular example is goblet cells. Multicellular are more complex and is divided into two parts by supporting connective tissue that forms a fibrous capsule that extends in the gland proper and the gland into lobes.

Connective Tissue

found everywhere in the body. most abundant. its levels differ for different locations in the body. Ex. skin has a lot, brain has hardly any of it.

4 main classes of connective tissue

1. Connective tissue proper (fat, and fibrous tissue of ligaments)

2. Cartilage

3. Bone tissue

4. Blood

3 Characteristics of Connective Tissue

1. Common origin

2. Degrees of vascularity

3. Extracellular matrix

Common Origin

All connective tissues arise from mesenchyme (an embryonic tissue) and hence have a common kinship.

Degrees of Vascularity

CT (connective tissues) run the whole gamut of vascularity. Cartilage is avascular, dense CT is poorly vascularized, and other types have a rich supply of blood vessels.

Extracellular Matrix

CTs are largely nonliving extracellular matrix which separates the living cells of tissue. This matrix makes CT able to endure abuses, withstand tension, bear weight. No other tissue is able to tolerate these things.

Three main elements in CT

1. Ground Substance- space between cells and contains fibers. Composed of interstitial fluid, cell adhesion proteins, and proteoglycans.

2. Fibers- 3 types- elastic (long and thin fibers that extend into the matrix, allow to stretch and recoil, rubberlike), collagen (extremely tough), and reticular fibers (short and fine extensions of collagen, surround small blood vessels and support soft tissue of organs)are found in CT. They all provide support.

3. Cells- 4 types- fibroblasts (connective tissue proper), chondroblast (cartilage), osteoblast (bone), and hematopoietic stem cell (blood).

Types of Connective Tissue

1. Connective Tissue Proper

2. Areolar Connective Tissue

3. Adipose Tissue

4. Reticular Connective Tissue

5. Dense Regular CT

6. Dense Irregular CT

7. Cartilage

8. Bone

9. Blood

Connective Tissue Proper

Except for bone, blood and cartilage- all mature connective tissue belongs to this class.

Areolar- Appearance and contains

Gel like- contains all three fiber types, cells: fibroblasts, macrophages, mast cells and some white blood cells.

Areolar Function

Wraps and cushions organs, macrophages phagocytize bacteria, plays important role in inflammation, and holds and conveys tissue fluid. Surrounds capillaries.

Adipose

"Fat" tissue, matrix is sparse, closely packed adipocytes (fat cells), and has nucleus pushed to the side by large fat droplet.

Adipose Function and location

provides reserve food fuel, insulates against heat loss and supports and protects organs. Located under skin, around kidneys and eyeballs, within the abdomen and in breasts.

Reticular CT

Network of reticular fibers in typical loose ground substance. Fibers form a soft internal skeleton (stroma) that supports other cell types (WBC, mast cells and macrophages). Located in lymphoid organs such as lymph nodes, bone marrow and spleen.

Dense Regular CT

parallel collagen fibers, few elastic fibers, major cell type is the fibroblast (which synthesizes extracellular matrix and aids in healing wounds, primitive). Attaches muscles to bone or to muscle, attaches bones to bones. Location is: tendons, most ligaments.

Dense Irregular CT

Irregularly arranged collagen fibers, some elastic fibers, major cell type is fibroblast. Able to withstand tension in any direction and provides structural strength. Located in dermis of the skin, sub mucosa of digestive tract, and fibrous capsules of organs and joints.

Cartilage- 3 types

Hyaline, Elastic and Fibrocartilage

Most dominant cell type found in cartilage

Chondroblasts- produce new matrix until the skeleton stops growing at end of adolescence.

Hyaline

" Gristle"- most abundant type of cartilage in the body. Appearance is glassy. Collagen fibers form an imperceptible network. has resilient cushion properties. Resists compressive stress. Forms most of embryonic skeleton; covers ends of long bones in joint cavities; forms costal cartilages of ribs; cartilage of nose, trachea and larynx.

Elastic

similar to hyaline- but has more elastic fibers. maintains shape of structure while allowing great flexibility. Supports external ear (pinna) as well as epiglottis.

Fibrocartilage

similar matrix to hyaline but less firm; thick collagen fibers. ability to absorb compressive shock. Located in intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis, and disc of knee joint.

Bone (Osseous Tissue)

Very well vascularized, osteocytes lie in the lacunae (gap in the matrix) and it is hard and calcified. Supports and protects. Stores calcium and other minerals, as well as fats. Marrow is site of blood cell formation (hematopoiesis)