AP Pysch Vocab 1

Hindsight Bias

the tendency to believe, after an outcome is known, that we “knew it all along”

Overconfidence Bias

The tendency to overestimate how accurate our knowledge or judgements are

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to seek out or interpret evidence in a way that confirms our preexisting beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence

Evolutionary Perspective

Explains behavior and mental processes in terms of adaptation and survival, influenced by natural selection

Biological Perspective

Explains behavior through brain structures, genetics, neurotransmitters, and hormones

Psychodynamic Perspective

Focuses on unconscious drives, conflicts, and childhood experiences

Behavioral Perspective

Explains behavior as learned through conditioning, reinforcement, and punishment

Humanistic Perspective

Emphasizes free will, personal growth, and striving for self-acutualization

Cognitive Perspective

Examines internal mental processes such as thinking, memory, problem-solving, and decision-making

Socio-Cultural Perspective

Looks at how culture, social norms, and environment influence behavior and mental processes

Theory

A well-developed set of principles that explains and predicts psychological phenomena

Hypotheses

Testable predictions derived from a theory

Falsifiable

A quality of a hypothesis; it can be proven false through evidence

Replication

Repeating a study to confirm its findings and test reliability

Peer Review

process where other experts evaluate research before it’s published

Case Study

In-depth study of a single individual or small group

Naturalistic Observation

Observing subjects in their natural environment without interference

Meta-Analysis

A statistical method that combines results from many studies to determine overall trends

Correlational Studies

Research that measures the relationship between two variables but does not prove causation

Random Sample

Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected

Convenience Sample

Participants are chosen based on ease of access

Representative Sample

A sample that accurately reflects the character of the population being studied

Independent Variable

The factor manipulated by the researcher

Dependent Variable

The factor measured; the outcome of interest

Confounding Variable

An outside factor that may influence the DV and confuse results

Third Variable

A hidden variable that explains the correlation between two others

Operational Defintion

A clear statement of how a variable will be measured or manipulated

Random Assignment

Placing participants into groups by chance to reduce bias

Control Group

Group not exposed to the IV; serves as a comparison

Experimental Group

Group exposed to the IV

Placebo

An inactive treatment given to control for expectations

Placebo Effect

Improvement caused by belief in treatment, not the treatment itself

Single Blind

Participants do not know whether they are in control or experimental group

Double Blind

Neither participants nor researchers know group assignments, reducing bias

Quantitative

Numerical Data

Qualitative

Descriptive Data

Generalizability

The extent to which results apply to other populations and settings

Institutional Review Board

A committee that ensures research meets ethical standards

Consent/Assent

Informed consent: adults agree to participate; assent: minors give agreement in addition to parental consent

Debrief

Explaining the purpose of the study and any deception afterward

Confidentiality

Protecting participants’ personal information and keeping data private