PSY 324 final

deductive reasoning

rigidly structured argumentation which, if accepted, must absolutely be true, strongest when both valid and true. Requires perfect information to be valid and sound

inductive reasoning

structured argumentation (can be reasoned but not necessarily) which if accepted is probably true. can be used when an argument can validly support a conclusion without completely confirming it, one may employ inductive reasoning

What is this argument structure?

Modus Ponen

What is this argument structure?

Modus Tollens

What is this common error human deduction?

Denying the Antecedent

What is this common error human deduction?

affirming the Consequent

Watson (1966)

studied the psychology of reasoning, specifically common errors in human deduction (denying the antecedent and consequent)

What is an error with inductive reasoning

base rate neglect

base rate neglect

we do not know the base rate and assume it to be great even though the true probability may be lower

Language

means by which humans interact with each other

Noam Chomsky

believed that humans are endowed with universal grammar

Universal Grammar

some set of structural rules are innate. A unique capacity to interpret grammar

Poverty of Stimulus

the theory that children receive insufficient linguistic input to fully acquire their native language without innate grammatical knowledge.

Phoneme

refers to the smallest unit of sound in language, often but not always represented by alphabetic letters

Morpheme

represents the smallest units of meaning in language

Bock 2000 and Levelt 1989

shows evidence suggests words are ordered before determining how to pronounce them

Coarticulation

Phonemes aren’t entirely separate either, they are blended together. when a consonant is pronounced, a vowel sound is attached to it automatically

What are the two competing theories on speech perception?

Motor Theory and Auditory theory

Motor Theory

(Liberman and Mattingly, 1985), the systems associated with perceiving and producing speech are closely related. Speech perception is innate and species-specific

Evidence for Motor Theory

Categorical perception

Categorical Perception

the delay between the physical motions of speech and the vibrations of the vocal chords can dictate how listeners identify phenome sounds. the areas of the brain associated with with speaking are stimulated when listening to speech. demonstrates that speech perception relies on motor system

Auditory Theory

speech perception is derived from the properties of the auditory system. this is not species-specific

Evidence for auditory theory

not species-specific, categorical perception functions in chinchillas similar to humans

the place of articulation (ex. closed lips or tongue location) of a consonant can be reliably predicted using only the sounds made by the consonant

Kuhl and Miller (1978)

not species-specific, categorical perception functions in chinchillas similar to humans

Syntax

ordering of words and their relations, interpretations can even be different for identical strings of words

Kim et al (1991)

evidence that there is a psychological basis to the grammatical categorization of words

Slobin (1966)

humans favor active over passive sentences

Broca’s area

associated with the production and expression of language

Wernicke’s area

associated with the comprehension of language

What are the four aspects of a problem?

goal, givens, means of transforming conditions, obstacles

Goals

an end state or solution being pursued which can be determined as solved by some criterion

Givens

objects, conditions, and constraints associated with a problem

Means of transforming conditions

the problem must be practically solvable, so there must be a way to change the situation

Obstacles

some difficulty must exist which inhibits finding the solution

Well-defined problems

the conditions and aspects of the problem are clearly specified without ambiguities or uncertainties

Ill-defined problems

he conditions and aspects are not clearly specified. Ambiguities and uncertainties cloud the paths to the goal

How can problem-solving be reliably investigated?

intermediate products, verbal protocols, computer simulations

Intermediate products

researchers log the steps a solver takes on the way to a solution

Verbal protocols

researchers ask participants to “think aloud” as they work through a problem

Computer simulations

researchers build a program that mimics the problem-solving process

Newell and Simon (1972)

among the best known researchers of problem solving

Task environment

refers to the objective factors of a problem outside of cognitive processes

Problem space

refers to the mental representations of the task environment wherein the problem-solving process occurs

Problem state

refers to a past, present, or future state in the problem-solving situations

Problem operator

refers to the means by which a problem solver can move from one state to another

Algorithm

a systematic procedure which is certain to produce a solution to a problem. involves searching all possible problem states to derive a solution. perfectly reliable, but sometimes immensely time-consuming. often intractable for the human mind

Heuristic

a method that can direct a partial search to find pertinent problem-state information. More efficient than algorithms but do not guarantee a solution

Hill Climbing

an example of a Heuristic, with this method, at any given point in a problem space, one must simply choose the next state closest to the goal

Problem with Hill Climbing

not always the most efficient

Means-end analysis

the problem solver reviews numerous problem operators available and identifies which one best reduces the distance to the goal

Problem with means-end analysis

all possibilities may not be accounted for nor assessed

Functional Fixedness

an inability to use objects for purposes other than their intended functions or designs

Heuristics in Decision Making

when confronted with some hindrances to the decision-making process, humans will employ heuristics to simplify the choice. cognitive shortcuts or biases which can be useful in arriving at decisions

Availability Heuristics

when making decisions we are biased by what comes to mind first

Representativeness heuristics

cases in which an event is judged to be more likely if its features or properties are more like its categories

Conjunction fallacy

the inclination to choose a conjunction of answers rather than the more mathematically accurate choice

Anchoring and adjustment

people make estimates based on some starting or baseline value, and adjust from that point with new information

Ariely, Lowenstien and Prelec:

SSN and sound study as evidence for Anchoring and adjustment

Normative models (rational models)

assumes humans are rational beings. these attempt to predict how humans ought to behave it what would be most optimal

what two rational principles play a significant role in normative modeling?

Transitivity and Non-contridiction

Transitivity

If A is preferred over B, and B is preferred over C. Then A is preferred over C

Non-contradiction

if A is preferred over B, B is not preferred over A

Expected Value theory

was an early model in economics designed to predict how people determine monetary value. Values are calculated by arithmetic

Problem with Expected Value theory

does not successfully predict how humans determine monetary valuations

Expected Utility Theory

Values are calculated by arithmetic but utilities (specific goals of a person) is considered

Violations of Expected Utility Theory

certainty effect, preference reversals, Context effects

Certainty effect

biased in favor of prospects that are guaranteed

Preference reversals

refer to cases in which decision makers value A over B, but still choose B (or give it greater weight in some way)

Context effect

arise when people’s choices are impacted by the relationship between the options available

attraction effect

when an object is better than another object in all dimensions, we are most likely to choose it even if there is a “better” option

Framing effect:

arise when utility decisions are impacted by the manner in which the options are presented

Sunk costs

After the investment is made, if large enough, one is more inclined to stick to it even if it isn't working out

Descriptive models

these attempt to predict actual human behavior without regard for what is optimal

bounded rationality

a principle which suggests humans can’t make perfect decisions, but they can usually make pretty good decisions

Prospect Theory

an adjusted expected utility with the hopes of accounting for the various non-normative tendencies observed in human decision making data. replaced objective probabilities in expected utility with subjective psychological probability

Regret Theory

People will choose a less rational choice if the other choice is a guarantee

Are we more biased by loss or gain?

loss

when a problem is framed in terms of losses, how do people tend to be?

risk-seeking

When a problem is framed in terms of gains, how do people tend to be?

risk-averse

Expected Value theory

Normative

Expected Utility Theory

Normative

Prospect Theory

Descriptive

Regret Theory

Descriptive

Optimizing

Examine all options and choose the best one

Satisficing

Decision maker will decline to investigate every possible option, only a smaller subset will be reviewed instead

Elimination by aspects

some aspect of the options is considered, and any option not meeting a criterion is eliminated. this process is repeated until one option remains