Exam 1 - semester 2

Endocrine Glands

Ductless glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream.

Exocrine Glands

Glands that secrete their products onto epithelial surfaces through small ducts.

Hormones

Chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands that exert effects by binding to specific receptors on target cells.

Hydrophilic Hormones

Hormones that use membrane receptors and cannot pass through cell membranes easily.

Hydrophobic Hormones

Hormones that use intracellular receptors and can pass through cell membranes.

Peptide Hormones

Short chains of linked amino acids, such as oxytocin.

Steroid Hormones

Hormones derived from lipid cholesterol, including testosterone and progesterone.

Thyroid Hormones

Unique hormones such as T3 and T4, classified as monoamines but hydrophobic.

Adrenal Glands

Glands that produce various hormones, including mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids.

Pancreatic Islets

Clusters of cells in the pancreas that produce hormones such as insulin and glucagon.

Testes

Male gonads responsible for spermatogenesis and production of testosterone.

Ovaries

Female gonads that produce ova and hormones like estrogens and progestins.

Erythropoietin

Hormone produced by kidneys that stimulates red blood cell production.

Thymosin

Hormone produced by the thymus that is important for immune function.

Melatonin

Hormone produced by the pineal gland that regulates sleep-wake cycles.

Endocrine System

Includes glands and organs that produce hormones to regulate bodily functions and maintain homeostasis.

Negative Feedback

A control mechanism where the activity of a gland is decreased by rising levels of hormone.

Positive Feedback

A control mechanism where the activity of a gland is increased by falling levels of hormone.

Hypophysis

Another name for the pituitary gland, known as the master endocrine gland.

Adrenal Cortex

The outer region of the adrenal glands that produces glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids.

Glucagon

A hormone that raises blood glucose levels by stimulating liver cells to convert glycogen to glucose.

Prolactin

A hormone that triggers and maintains lactation in mammals.

Calcitonin

A hormone produced by the thyroid that helps maintain blood calcium levels by preventing hypercalcemia.

Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)

Hormone produced by the parathyroid glands that helps maintain blood calcium homeostasis.

Oxytocin

A hormone that induces uterine contractions and stimulates milk letdown in mammals.

Erythropoietin

A hormone produced by the kidneys that increases the production of red blood cells.

Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

Also known as thyrotropic hormone, it stimulates growth and hormone production in the thyroid gland.

Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone (MSH)

Hormone involved in controlling color changes in the pigment cells of certain animals.

Insulin

A hormone that lowers blood glucose levels and facilitates the absorption of glucose into body cells.

Cushing's Disease

A condition caused by excess cortisol production, often due to a tumor in the pituitary gland.

Cholecystokinin (CCK)

A hormone produced in the small intestine that stimulates the release of digestive enzymes from the pancreas.

Relaxin

Hormone that relaxes ligaments surrounding the birth canal and promotes mammary development.

Thymosin

Hormone produced by the thymus that aids in the development of T-lymphocytes for the immune response.

Prostaglandins

Hormone-like substances that influence various bodily functions, produced in many tissues.

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

Also known as vasopressin, it helps regulate blood pressure and prevents excessive urination.

Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)

Gonadotropin that stimulates oogenesis in females and spermatogenesis in males.

Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

Hormone that facilitates ovulation in females and testosterone production in males.

Composition of Blood

A fluid connective tissue that flows throughout the entire body, consisting of plasma and cellular components.

Hematopoiesis

The continuous production of all blood cells primarily occurring in red bone marrow.

Erythropoiesis

The process of creating red blood cells stimulated by erythropoietin released from kidney cells.

Thrombopoiesis

The production of platelets (thrombocytes) from megakaryocytes in the bone marrow.

White Blood Cells (WBCs)

Leukocytes that play a crucial role in the body’s defense against pathogens.

Hemoglobin

A protein in red blood cells that transports oxygen from the lungs to the tissues.

Transfusion Therapy

A procedure to replace lost or destroyed blood or blood components from a donor to a recipient.

Lymphatic System

A system of ducts and fluid lymph that plays a role in immune response and fluid balance.

Lymph Nodes

Small filters located along lymphatic vessels that trap antigens and foreign materials.

Primary Lymphoid Organs

Organs like the thymus and bursa of Fabricius that regulate lymphocyte maturation.

Secondary Lymphoid Organs

Organs including lymph nodes and spleen that trap antigens and facilitate immune responses.

Red Cell Distribution Width (RDW)

A numerical expression of variation in RBC size, useful in diagnosing anemia.

Thrombocytopenia

A condition characterized by a lower than normal platelet count.

Mean Corpuscular Volume (MCV)

Average volume of individual red blood cells, used to evaluate erythrocytes.

Regenerative Anemia

Anemia characterized by an increased number of reticulocytes, indicating active erythropoiesis.

Pathogens

Disease-causing agents such as bacteria, fungi, and viruses.

Innate Immunity

The first line of defense found in all animals, characterized by rapid response and recognition of broad pathogen traits.

Adaptive Immunity

A specific immune response found only in vertebrates, mediated by B and T lymphocytes.

Phagocytosis

The process by which phagocytic cells ingest and digest pathogens.

Humoral Response

Immune response mediated by antibodies that defend against infections in body fluids.

Cell-mediated Response

Immune response involving cytotoxic T cells that defend against infection in body cells.

Natural Killer Cells

A type of lymphocyte that attacks virus-infected cells and tumor cells.

Antigen

Any substance that elicits a B or T cell response, including proteins or polysaccharides on pathogens.

MHC Complex

Major histocompatibility complex; molecules that present fragments of antigens on the surface of host cells.

Opsonization

The process where antibodies mark pathogens for destruction by phagocytes.

Inflammation

A localized response to injury or infection characterized by redness, heat, swelling, and pain.

B Lymphocytes

White blood cells that mature in the bone marrow and are responsible for producing antibodies.

T Lymphocytes

White blood cells that mature in the thymus and are involved in cellular immune responses.

Complement System

A component of the immune system that enhances the ability to clear microbes and damaged cells.

Cytotoxic T Cells

T cells that kill infected or cancerous cells using toxic proteins.

Antibody Function

The various roles of antibodies, such as neutralization, opsonization, and enhancing phagocytosis.

Immunization

The process of introducing antigens into the body to stimulate an adaptive immune response.

Autoimmune Diseases

Conditions where the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's own tissues.

Immunodeficiency Diseases

Conditions resulting in an inadequate immune response, often due to lack of functional lymphocytes.

Social Immunity

The strategies and behaviors in social species that enhance collective resistance to disease.

Allergies

Hypersensitive reactions of the immune system to typically harmless substances.

Covid-19 Transmission Prevention

Methods, such as wearing masks, that reduce the spread of the virus responsible for COVID-19.

T Cell Activation

The process where T cells are stimulated by recognizing antigens presented by antigen-presenting cells (APCs).