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Describe two features of the growth of the cinema industry:
One feature of the cinema industry was rapid growth. For example, in 1924, around 40 million cinema tickets were sold each week. By 1929 it had risen to around 100 million tickets a week.
Another feature of the cinema industry was rapid advancement. For example, by 1922 the TechnicolorCorporation had developed a way to produce colour films. Additionally, by 1927 films with sound 'talkies' had been developed, the first one being 'The Jazz Singer'.
Describe two features of the growth of the music industry:
One feature of the music industry was Jazz. For example, Jazz was a mixture of black and white American folk music that had developed in multi-racial cities, like New Orlands, across the USA. Furthermore, Jazz quickly became international because of people like Duke Ellington and Paul Whiteman, and stars like Louis Armstrong and Kid Ory.
Another feature of the music industry was dance. For example, the Charleston was a fast dance that quickly became a popular group dance in the 1920s. Furthermore, the Black Bottom was another fast dance that spread into ballrooms and dance halls across the USA.
Describe two features of the growth of the sport industry:
One feature of the sports industry was the increase in popularity. For example, in 1921 300,000 people went to watch the baseball World Series. Furthermore, the boxing fight between Jack Dempsey and Gene Turney in the Long Count Fight in 1927 brought in $2 million in ticket sales.
Another feature of the sports industry was the stars it produced. For example, in baseball, Babe Ruth set a record of 60 home runs, which remained unbeaten until 1961. Additionally, Bobby Jones was the first golfer to achieve a Grand Slam in the major golf tournament of 1930.
Describe two features of the growth of the radio industry:
One feature of the radio industry was the demand. For example, the number of radios in the USA grew from 60,000 in 1920 to 10 million in 1929. Furthermore, the National Broadcasting Corporation (NBC) was set up in 1926 which combined many stations with similar programs into one.
Another feature of the radio industry was the advertisement. For example, the use of adverts on the radio meant that people spent part of their free time listening to advertisements which directly influenced their buying decision. Furthermore, the advertisement gave people new hobbies which impacted how people spent their spare time.
Describe two features of the growth of the motoring industry:
One feature of the motoring industry was the ease of accessibility. For example, the cheap price of the Model T, $290 in 1925, allowed more people to buy them. Additionally, as more people got cars it allowed more people to reach more places, the number of visitors to American national parks grew from around 200,000 visitors in 1910 to around 2.7 million visitors by 1930.
Another feature of the motoring industry was the possibilities for ordinary Americans. For example, bargain hunters could visit suburban shopping centres, which were first developed in Kansas City in 1922. Furthermore, major cities were in reach of more people, this meant that residents in rural areas could take place in activities in close by cities more often.
Describe two features of the changing role of women:
One feature of the changing role of women was jobs. For example, in the 1920s 2 million women joined the workforce, which meant they made up about 20% of its total. Additionally, women were in more different jobs: a study found that women were in 537 out of 572 types of jobs.
Another feature of the changing role of women were the flappers. For example, some young, single, working-class women, middle-class college students and free-spirited upper-class women decided to become flappers. Additionally, these women cut their hair short, coloured it, put on make-up and wore short skirts with stockings rolled down to their knees.
Describe two features of the economic benefits of WWI.
One feature of the economic benefits of WWI was industry. For example, factory production grew by 35% during the First World War. Furthermore, the steel industry produced 26.1 million tonnes of steel in 1910, this had increased to 42.1 million tonnes by 1920.
Another feature of the economic benefits of WWI was Agriculture. For example, by the time Europe started to recover from WWI, America supported 30% of the wheat in the world and 55% of its cotton. Additionally, the price of goods increased by around 25% and the average income of a farmer owning a farm increased by around 30%.
Describe two features of mass production.
One feature of mass production was the time taken. For example, before Henry Ford introduced mass production it took 12 hours to produce one Model T, on 31 October 1925 every 10 seconds one Model T was produced. Additionally, the need for skilled workers reduced as the building of a car was split down into smaller parts.
Another feature of mass production was the price drop. For example, the original price of the Model T was $920 by 1925 it only cost $290. Additionally, this resulted in a huge increase in demand among Americans which in return stimulated the economy.
Describe two features of hire purchase and advertising.
One feature of hire purchase was that people could buy more products. For example, people could buy products without having to save up for them and pay back the businesses in instalments. Furthermore, this stimulated the economy as it ensured people to keep buying.
One feature of advertising was the encouragement to buy. For example, by 1929 there were 618 radio stations with most of them carrying adverts or were sponsored by big brands which impacted peoples buying decisions. Additionally, big brands like Kellogg's tried to overwhelm people consumers with images of their brand to try and change their buying habits.
Describe two features of consumerism and the stock market.
One feature of consumerism was the choices. For example, by 1929 there were 1,395 department stores to chose from and sales of all sorts of goods rose rapidly. Furthermore, people were encouraged to buy a variety of goods rather than the same one over and over again.
One feature of the stock market was the involvement of ordinary people. For example, between 1927 and 1929, 1.5 million ordinary Americans became involved in buying shares in the American stock market. Additionally, people either invested with their own money or by a method called 'buying on the margin'.
Describe two features of the problems in farming.
One feature of the problems in farming was over-production. For example, new man-made materials, such as rayon, along with the fashion for shorter skirts, meant that there was less demand for cotton. Furthermore, prohibition resulted in less demand for wheat (resulting in prices fell from 2.5$ per bushel to less than 1$), which was used as a part of the brewing process.
Another feature of the problems in farming was mechanization. For example, mechanization involved the replacement of horses with tractors. Instead of food, farmers now needed fuel to run their farms. Additionally, there were ten times as many tractors in 1920 than there had been in 1915. This resulted in fewer people needing to be employed.
Describe two features of the problems in the older industries.
One feature of the problems in the decline of the older industries was lower demand. For example, in 1920, 568 million tonnes of coal had been mined, but this fell to 518 million tonnes in 1930 because more houses were heated by oil. Additionally, due to more personal car ownership, the need for trains reduced dramatically with the industry only growing at a rate of 10% during the 1920s which was considerably less than in the late 19th century and early 20th century.
Another feature of the problems in the decline of the older industries was competition from products that could replace them. For example, during the period before the war, the cotton and woollen mills had processed the material needed for clothing Americans. Furthermore, the textiles industry faced a huge drop in the demand for its goods due to changing fashions and competition from silk and the new material, rayon. As a result, textile production began to decline in the mills of New England, the Appalachian regions and the rural South. This was a problem the mill workers shared with the cotton farmers of the southern states of the USA, who struggled to find a market for their crop.
Describe two features of the wall street crash:
One feature of the Wall Street Crash was under-consumption. For example, 71% of Americans were on low incomes of below $2500 a year and lacked the purchasing power to buy luxury consumer goods and new houses. Those who could afford goods like new cars, radios, and houses, had bought them, but most couldn't. This was mainly due to the large gap between the rich and the poor, as well as farmers and workers in new industries. Furthermore, since the market became saturated, the well-paid workers who produced these goods began to lose their jobs, weakening their purchasing power as well.
Another feature of the Wall Street Crash was the economic weakness. For example, 60% of American families couldn't afford mass-produced consumer goods. This led many Americans to buy on credit. Furthermore, other countries had started putting taxes on American goods. Meaning trade became restricted by tariff retaliation.
Describe two features of Hoover's reaction to the Great Depression:
One feature of Hoover's reaction to the Great Depression was intervention. For example, Hoover set up the National Credit Corporation in 1931. $500 million was raised by businesses to help failing banks. Furthermore, he set up the Agricultural Marketing Act in 1929, which set up the Federal Farm Board to buy up crops from farmers.
Another feature of Hoover's reaction to the Great depression was volunteerism. For example, Hoover thought that the federal government did not have the right to force people to do things. Additionally, he saw the federal government's role as bringing together the state and local governments, as well as businessmen to encourage them to act in a way that would help the economy
Describe two features of the impact of the Depression on banking:
One feature of the impact of the Depression on banking was 'the run'. Following the 1929 crash, customers saw banks failing and rushed to get their own savings. Futhermore, this led to many more banks closing than before as the banks savings were whiped out.
Another feature of the impact of the Great Depression on banking was banks failing. For example, in the 1920s around 5,100 banks failed and already causing poverty. But when more banks collapsed, along with the buisinesses they supported, they suffered the cosenquences. Additionally, the moat significant failure was in December 1930, when the New York City Bank left 400,000 people without their savings, $286 million were lost by its customers.
Describe two features of the impact of the Depression on agriculture:
One feature of the impact of the Great Depression on agriculture was pricing. For example, In 1929 prices for agricultural goods, like wheat and cotton, were already low. Nevertheless, as a result of continued over-production at home and increased production abroad, prices continued to fall. At their lowest point, they reached 60% below the 1929 level and farm incomes fell dramatically. Between them, American farmers earned around $6 billion in 1929, but by 1932 this had fallen to $2 billion. This made it almost impossible to continue to pay off mortgages and other debts which resulted in a third of American farmers losing their land.
Another feature of the impact of the Great Depression on agriculture was resistance and migration. For example, farms that had been taken from their original owners due to debt were put up for auction. Sometimes the local community took action and forced the auctioneer to sell to them at a very low price, after which it was returned to its owner. Additionally, in the early 1930s, around 2 million people moved from rural to urban areas. However, the Depression turned cities into unpleasant places with large numbers of unemployed people and the rate of migration slowed considerably by the mid-1930s.
Describe two features of the impact of the Depression on industry:
One feature of the impact of the Great Depression on the industry was a fall in demand. For example, other countries did not want, or could not afford, US goods, which meant the physical amount the USA exported decreased by 39% between 1929 and 1932. Furthermore, demand was a particular problem for industries that produced luxury goods as customers from around the world, as well as in the USA itself, no longer had the spare cash to buy them.
Another feature of the impact of the Great Depression on the industry was the price drops. For example, reductions in demand led to companies cutting prices to try to sell goods. This turned national business profits of $9,628 million in 1929 into losses of $3,017 million in 1932. Additionally, wages in manufacturing fell by almost 50% between 1929 and 1933.
Describe two features of the impact of the Depression on society - Hoovervilles:
One feature of the impact of the Depression on society: Hoovervilles was homelessness. For example, the homeless tried to stay in or near their hometowns. Often, they joined together to create a shantytown on empty land, building their accommodation from scrap materials. Furthermore, When joined by others, their population grew into the hundreds In the biggest shantytowns, in New York City, Washington DC and St Loui thousands could be found living without running water, basic facilities or permanent shelter.
Another feature of the impact of the Depression on society: Hoovervilles was the self-organization. For example, a Hooverville in Seattle, where a man called Jesse Jackson declared himself mayor, took control of nine acres of land and encouraged others to join him. Additionally, men from various racial backgrounds lived there without an income or the company of women and children.
Describe two features of the impact of the Depression on society - Bonus Marchers:
One feature of the bonus marchers was a march to Washington DC. For example, 20,000 World War 1 veterans marched down to Washington DC demanded their promised wages in 1932. The Federal government had promised up to $625 to make up for the wages they lost while fighting during the war, which was to be paid in 1945. But when the Great Depression struck, the veterans felt they needed the money immediately. Furthermore, these people, known as Bonus Marchers, camped across the river from the Capitol while waiting for the US Congress to decide whether they would get their bonus.
Another feature of the bonus marchers was the clashes between protestors and the authorities. For example, President Hoover was against the idea because he decided that he needed the money to tackle the Depression. On 17 June 1932, Congress rejected the bonus bill, however, they made $100,000 available to help the Bonus Marchers home. Despite this offer, 5000 veterans stayed to maintain pressure on the government. Furthermore, on 28 July 1932, the police tried to empty buildings, but the protestors fought against them. After this, the troops were sent in with a powerful force, burning tents and teargassing marchers. In the end, hundreds of marchers were injured, and 1 child was killed.
Describe two features of the impact of the Depression on society - unemployment and homelessness:
One feature of the impact of the Depression on society was unemployment. For example, In 1929, 3.2 per cent of the potential workforce was unemployed, but this had risen to 24.9 per cent by 1933. Furthermore, in certain regions, where people worked in steelmaking or car manufacturing, the situation could be even worse. In these areas, unemployment reached as high as 50 per cent.
Another feature of the impact of the Depression on society was homelessness. For example, in 1931, New York City's government had to try and find accommodation for 20,000 children whose parents could no longer provide a home for them. Additionally, with limited funding, local governments and private charities could not cope. This forced many homeless Americans to search for their own solutions.
Three features of Roosevelt and the New Deal 1933-41 - aims:
One aim of the New Deal was recovery. For example, its desired outcome was: an increased income for farmers and farm workers; a higher rate of industrial production and an end to the banking crisis.
A second aim of the New Deal was relief. The desired outcome was that the states get provided with enough money to meet the immediate needs for relief from hunger and poverty. Furthermore, it wanted short-term work relief projects that are available for the unemployed.
A third aim of the New Deal was reform. The desired outcome was a social security system that looks after US citizens as well as improvements in the way banks and businesses were run to secure long-term recovery.
Two features of Roosevelt and the New Deal 1933-41 - the first 100 days:
One feature of the first 100 days was Roosevelt's direct approach. For example, Roosevelt started work straight away, using his first 100 days in office to introduce a number of measures to tackle the Depression. Furthermore, he took advice from a group called the Brains Trust and once he had a plan in mind, he requested that Congress pass the laws required to put it into practice. Congress met for a special emergency session from 9 March to 16 June 1933 and helped Roosevelt set up relief programmes and establish new agencies to organise them.
Another feature of the first 100 days was tackling the banking crisis. For example, the banking system was in difficulty, as Hoover had not been able to stop huge numbers of banks from closing down. Roosevelt needed time to sort out the banks, so he asked Congress to pass the Emergency Banking Act, which closed all banks for 4 days. Additionally, federal checks were carried out and only financially sound banks were allowed to reopen. To further restore confidence, Roosevelt talked about the banks in his first fireside chat on 12 March 1933, asking Americans to deposit their savings once again.
Two features of Roosevelt and the New Deal 1933-41 - Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)
One feature of the TVA was its purpose. For example, before 1933, states had been helped by the federal government to solve their own problems and administer their own relief. However, in the South, state governments had not done enough to help the poor. As a result, Roosevelt set up the TVA. It was a huge federal planning agency that would help seven states to recover from the Depression. The TVA aimed to: provide work for southerners, generate and extend the coverage of electricity to remote farms as well as to control flooding and improve the productivity of the land.
Another Feature of the TVA was its plan. For example, the main plan was to build up to 20 dams, supervised by the TVA, which would meet all three aims and redevelop the Tennessee Valley. At the same. time, farmers were to be educated in new farming methods and ways to look after the land, while model farms were set up to put these new ideas into action. As a consequence, the problems of drought and dust storms were partly solved, making a similar environmental disaster less likely in the future.
Two features of Roosevelt and the New Deal 1933-41 - National Recovery Administration (NRA)
One feature of the NRA was its purpose. For example, Roosevelt's NRA worked with major industries to create industry-wide codes. These set quotas on how much was produced, controlled prices, set wages, limited working hours and banned child labour. Companies were not forced to join the scheme, but many business leaders recognised that the codes would end over-production, stop competitive industries from bankrupting each other and improve working conditions.
Another feature of the NRA was the benefits. For example, any business that followed a code was allowed to display the symbol of the NRA, the Blue Eagle. The symbol's popularity amongst the public helped ensure that 2.3 million businesses took part in the scheme by the end of July 1933. They were proud to show the Blue Eagle at the top of their letters.
Two features of Roosevelt and the New Deal 1933-41 - Agriculture Adjustment Administration (AAA)
One feature of the AAA was to reduce overproduction. For example, it offered subsidies to farmers who limited their production. If a farmer kept an acre (4,047 square metres) of land empty, he received around $11 to make up the lost income. As a result, less wheat and cotton were harvested, while demand remained much the same, causing the price to rise.
Another feature of the AAA was its shortcomings. For example, in the short term, this measure didn't do enough. There were still too many farm products from previous harvests stored in warehouses and ready for sale. This meant that prices didn't immediately drop.
Two features of Roosevelt and the New Deal 1933-41 - Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC)
One feature of the CCC was its purpose. For example, Roosevelt, like the previous president, believed that Americans should be given work rather than handouts. One of his earliest measures was to set up the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC). This programme took unemployed young men into the countryside and gave them tough outdoor jobs, including trail building and reservoir digging, for $30 a month. Most of this income had to be sent back home, which ensured families benefited from the scheme too.
Another feature of the CCC was its effect. For example, the CCC was a popular and successful project, demonstrating that Roosevelt planned to put his words into action. Even so, it applied only to 17-23-year-olds, so had employed only 500,000 men by 1935. To help employ greater numbers, Congress established the Public Works Administration (PWA), which was given $3.3 billion of federal money to spend on big construction projects, such as the Grand River Dam in Oklahoma, to create jobs for construction workers.
Two features of Roosevelt and the New Deal 1933-41 - Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA)
One feature of the FERA was its purpose. For example, the main purpose of the FERA was to help the unemployed. It did that by working cooperatively with the state government and providing federal grants for relief purposes. Grant applications required that states were to provide information on the amounts necessary to meet relief needs in the state and the amounts available from public and private sources within the state to contribute toward those relief needs. States also were to provide information on provisions made to assure adequate administrative supervision of the funds, the methods by which adequate relief levels would be assured, and the purposes for which the funds would be used.
Another feature of the FERA was the jobs it provided. For example, the head of FERA, Harry Hopkins, recognised that if nothing was done, by winter, some poor Americans might freeze to death. His solution was a temporary agency, the Civil Works Administration (CWA). With a budget of $400 million, it provided work on short-term projects, like refurbishing schools and road building. By the time it closed in early 1934, it had helped 4.2 million workers survive the winter.
Roosevelt and the New Deal 1933-41 - Social security Act:
Before 1935, the USA had no national system for pensions or unemployment insurance for workers. It was left to each state to establish a policy that worked for them. In most cases, this meant they had done little. Roosevelt was determined to change this and helped to make the Social Security Act law in 1935. The Social Security Act created: A federal pension system: employees paid into a pension scheme for their retirement. It also created: Federal unemployment insurance: employers of more than eight people paid a tax to the federal government. The money was used to provide unemployment pay for up to 16 weeks at half the normal rate. It also created: federal support for disadvantaged groups: support funded by federal matching, grants provided money for very poor old people, families with dependent children and disabled groups, including blind people.
Roosevelt and the New Deal 1933-41 - Wagner Act:
The National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933 had offered some protection to labour unions, but the Supreme Court declared the law invalid in 1935. In its place, Senator Robert Wagner proposed the National Labor Relations Bill. Once it became law, the act, often known as the Wagner Act: Strengthened labour unions: workers were legally entitled to join a union and unions could operate closed shops. Unfair practices like company unions and firing union members were banned. The Wagner Act also offered federal protection to unions: a National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) was set up, which supervised union negotiations, defended workers who had been fired and helped unions gain recognition from employers.
Two features of Roosevelt and the New Deal 1933-41 - Banking Act of 1935:
One feature of the Banking Act of 1935 was reforming banks. For example, Roosevelt had managed to rescue the banks in 1933, but as yet there had been no major reforms in their organisation. Control was still divided between the Federal Reserve, the states and the big banks. The Banking Act of 1935 changed that because it: created a Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System chosen by the president as well as that it gave various financial powers to the Board, taking them away from the more powerful banks.
Another feature of the Banking Act of 1935 was the impact. For example, despite opposition from bankers who did not want to lose control, the Banking Act strengthened the central banking system. As a result, in 1936 no national bank closed and very little had to be paid out in deposit insurance. The US banking system had been modernised and a repeat of the 1929 crisis was far less likely.
Two features of Roosevelt and the New Deal 1933-41 - rural electrificatrion:
One feature of rural electrification was the situation before the New Deal. For example, most farms in the USA lacked electricity. In 1930, it was available to around 10 per cent of farms and, in some of the poorest areas, only 1 per cent of farms had it. The problem was that the USA's enormous size meant there were large numbers of remote farms. It was not profitable for private electricity suppliers to run electrical lines for these poor farmers, so they did not bother. This meant farming families had no access to the consumer appliances that were transforming the USA,
Another feature of rural electrification was the New Deal. For example, the first New Deal measure to tackle the problem of rural electrification was the TVA, which built dams to generate electricity and lent money to co-operatives pay to lay power cables. In addition to this, Roosevelt set up the Electric Home and Farm Authority (EHFA), which aimed to help farmers buy electrical appliances. The EHFA encouraged appliance companies to make cheaper models for the TVA area and provided loans, backed by the RFC, to help farmers buy them on an instalment plan.
Two features of Roosevelt and the New Deal 1933-41 - achievements and shortcomings of the New Deal:
One feature of Roosevelt and the New Deal 1933-41 was the achievements. For example, for the aim of recovery: during the 1930s, farm income had risen from $2.6 billion a year to $4.6 billion and farmers had received $4 billion of direct help from the government. The industry had also begun to recover as most businesses that survived after 1933 were able to make a profit. For the aim of relief: The WPA employed 8 million people, as well as the work relief projects creating new parks, roads and schools. For the aim of reform: Social security: for the first time, the federal government provided help to families, the elderly, the unemployed and the disabled. The treatment of industrial labour: unions were recognised, minimum wages introduced and working hours limited. The living conditions of agricultural workers: many families were provided with electricity, had their land improved and were given financial help to keep it. Financial regulations: the banking system was centralised and greater controls were placed on the stock market.
Another feature of Roosevelt and the New Deal 1933-41 was the shortcomings. For example, the recovery plan led to some problems in areas like farming, where farm income rarely reached 1929 levels during the 1930s. One problem with the aim of relief was that the projects relied heavily on government spending and the projects provided work for only 40% of the people in need of it. Finally, a problem with the aim of reform was that the social security system left out large groups of people, including agricultural workers and household servants, and the payments were relatively small.
Two features of increased social tensions in the 1920s - attitude and policies towards immigration:
One feature of increased social tensions in the 1920s was the attitudes towards immigration. For example, in the years before the war, most immigrants had come from countries such as Italy, Austria-Hungary, Russia, and other countries in eastern and southern Europe. This wave of immigration upset some Americans because many of the immigrants were Catholic or Jews and so had a different cultural and religious background to the majority of the people already in the country. Furthermore, the immigrants were often poor, illiterate and could not speak English.
Another feature of increased social tensions in the 1920s was the policies toward immigration. For example, the USA passed two new laws in the 1920s to restrict immigration. The first piece of legislation, the Emergency Quota Act of 1921, limited immigration numbers from outside the western half of the world to 357,000 per year. Additionally, the law became even more restrictive in 1924, when the National Origins Act was passed. It was designed to try and further reduce the number of people from southern and eastern European backgrounds in the USA. The new law lowered the quota from 357,000 to around 164,000 immigrants per year.
Two features of increased social tensions in the 1920s - the palmer raids and the 'Red Scare':
One feature of increased social tensions in the 1920s was the palmer raids. For example, attorney General Palmer's first measure was to set up the General Intelligence Division, headed by John Edgar Hoover, which later became a part of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). It was created in order to spy on, secretly join and then arrest the members of radical groups. Futhermore, they began to take action on 7 November 1919, when the offices of the Union of Russian Workers were searched and arrests were made. These raids continued into early 1920, reaching their peak on 2 January when raids took place in 33 cities on any group Palmer and Hoover believed to be radical.
Another feature of increased social tensions in the 1920s was the 'Red Scare'. For example, many middle and upper-class Americans feared communism, because it threatened to transform society, taking away their wealth and power. Additionally, in 1919, these concerns were increased by an outbreak of unrest and anger amongst industrial workers, whose wages were low and rights were few. In total, there were around 3,600 strikes across the USA, including a general strike in Seattle of 100,000 workers and a police strike in Boston that created a serious challenge for law and order.
Two features of increased social tensions in the 1920s - the Sacco and Vanzetti case:
One feature of increased social tensions in the 1920s was the Sacco and Vanzetti case - the robbery. For example, at 3.00 p.m. on 15 April 1920, two Italian immigrants committed an armed robbery in Braintree, Massachusetts. They shot the paymaster and a guard at a shoe factory, stealing $15,776.51 and escaping before anyone could stop them. Furthermore, in early May, the police heard that a car associated with the crime had been taken to a local garage. The mechanic was told to call the police when t was collected. On the night of 5 May 1920, Sacco and Vanzetti came to pick up the car, resulting in them being arrested.
Another feature of increased social tensions in the 1920s was the Sacco and Vanzetti case - result. For example, in July 1921, at 7.55 p.m. the court heard the judgment. Sacco and Vanzetti were found guilty and sentenced to death by electrocution. Additionally, the pair's supporters believed this was an unfair decision, especially as Judge Thayer was a known anti-anarchist and clearly sided against them. Appeals followed, but all without success.
Two features of increased social tensions in the 1920s - attitudes towards black Americans (KKK):
One feature of attitudes toward black Americans was the treatment in the south. For example, the white Americans who governed the South passed a series of laws, together known as the Jim Crow laws to segregate society. Furthermore, in 1918 black people still sat in different parts of restaurants, travelled on different railway carriages and used different toilets. Their educational opportunities were limited by the availability of black schools, which meant that only around 1 per cent of black people of high school age were able to attend one.
Another feature of attitudes toward black Americans was the KKK. For example, in the 1920s, membership numbers for the Klan rose quickly, mainly because Simmons recruited two public relations experts to help him. These were Edward Clarke and Elizabeth Tyler, who came up with new ways to attract members. For example, they allowed Kleagles to keep $4 from the $10 joining fee, which encouraged them to recruit members. As a result, by 1923, the Klan had 5 million members spread across 4,000 chapters. Additionally, at its height in the mid-1920s, the KKK had some very powerful members from all over the USA. These included senators from Texas and Indiana, the governor of Alabama and the mayor of Portland in Oregon, which gave the Klan considerable political power. They also had influence over the legal system, because some judges and police officers were members, or were sympathetic to the Klan, making it difficult for victims of Klansmen to get equality before the law.
Two features of increased social tensions in the 1920s - morals and values and the 'Monkey Trial':
One feature of the 'Monkey Trial' were the origins. For example, the Anti-Evolution League of America was set up to campaign against the teaching of Darwin's theory of evolution in US schools. The League disagreed with Darwin's idea that man was related to monkeys. In 1925, their campaign succeeded in Tennessee, which passed the Butler Act, making it illegal to teach the theory of evolution in the state. Anyone found doing so could be fined up to $500. Furthermore, a few modernists in the small town of Dayton were very angry and approached John Scopes, a high school teacher, to volunteer to break the law to see if it would be enforceable in the courts. Scopes agreed, taught the theory and was arrested.
Another feature of the 'Monkey Trial' was the trial. For example, John Scopes' trial began on 10 July 1925. The prosecution was led by William Jennings-Bryan, a popular fundamentalist who had run for the presidency three times and campaigned for the anti-evolution law. He faced an equally well-known lawyer, Clarence Darrow, who led the defence. Darrow, an agnostic, was a member of the American Civil Liberties Union. As a result of their involvement, a small-town trial became a national event. Additionally, Darrow wanted to challenge the law itself and turn the trial into a debate between fundamentalist ideas like creationism and modernist ones like the theory of evolution. This is why it became known as the 'Monkey Trial'. In taking this approach, Darrow helped turn a routine trial into a dramatic courtroom battle.
Two features of increased social tensions in the 1920s - prohibition and the gangsters:
One feature of increased social tensions was phrohibition. For example, during the 19th century, campaign groups from the temperance movement fought for the prohibition of alcohol. The Women's Christian Temperance Union, founded in 1874, used peaceful methods like marches to campaign against alcohol. Later, the Anti-Saloon League, set up in 1893, pressured the government directly to end the drinking of alcohol. Furthermore, by 1917, around half the states of the USA had already passed prohibition laws. Two years later, the rest of the country joined the ban.
Another feature of increased social tensions were the gangsters. For example, prohibition provided an opportunity for organised crime to grow in the 1920s It was clear that ordinary people wanted to drink alcohol, providing a market for gangs who could produce, smuggle and sell it to them. In some cities, like Chicago and New York, these gangs grew larger as they made money from businesses associated with drinking. Gang bosses ran gambling dens and brothels, co-ordinated loan sharks and made local businesses pay protection money to them. Additionally, one of the most successful bosses was Al Capone. At the height of his power, Capone earned around $105 million a year from organised crime. However, his profits were always at risk from competing gangs who wanted to take over his territory. This meant he had to use extreme violence to protect it. For example, on Valentine's Day 1929, Capone's men, dressed as policemen, tried to kill Bugs Moran, the leader of the rival North Side gang. Although Moran escaped the ambush, seven of his men were lined up and shot dead, showing the cruelty with which Capone maintained his territory.
One feature of the opposition to the New Deal - right-wing opposition of the Supreme Court:
One feature of the opposition to the New Deal was the right-wing opposition of the Supreme Court. For example, the Supreme Court was a major problem for Roosevelt because it had the power to stop New Deal laws. It was run by nine judges who, for the most part, did not share Roosevelt's political views. Furthermore, the majority had been selected by Republicans and could serve for life. The judges they had chosen thought that the US Constitution restricted the power of government, allowing people individual freedom.
Two features of the opposition to the New Deal - republicans:
One feature of the opposition from the republicans was their political beliefs. For example, Roosevelt was a member of the Democratic Party: which was the main opponent of the Republican Party. He made the federal government too powerful: they opposed the size and power of the Alphabet Agencies and supported the anti-New Deal decisions of the Supreme Court. He spent too much money: the federal government was spending billions of dollars on the New Deal. Republicans did not like using borrowed money to do this or Roosevelt's plan to raise taxes under the Revenue Act of 1935.
Another feature of the opposition from the republicans was their attempt at the presidency. For example, the Republican Party tried to defeat Roosevelt in the presidential elections of 1936. Their candidate, Alfred Landon, campaigned for power to be returned to the states, aid for farmers and an end to New Deal regulations. These promises did not appeal to most Americans, so they voted Roosevelt in for a second term as president.
One feature of the opposition to the New Deal - business interests:
One feature of the opposition from businesses was because of their beliefs. For example, they did not like being told what to do: NRA codes and New Deal laws made businesses pay a minimum wage and restrict working hours. This went against the traditional laissez-faire beliefs many businessmen had. The New Deal supported unions: the NIRA and Wagner Act gave unions the power to challenge business managers. Businesses did not like the way the government was spending so much: federal taxes were used to fund New Deal programmes, like the WPA and Social
Two features of the opposition to the New Deal - the Liberty League:
One feature of the opposition from the Liberty League was their beliefs. For example, it was founded in 1934. Conservatives from both parties, including the Democrat Al Smith and Republican James Wadsworth, joined with business leaders like the du Pont brothers to oppose the New Deal. They created a national organisation that distributed leaflets, broadcast speeches and sponsored dinners to spread their message. In their view, the New Deal was anti-business and threatened the power of the states. They argued that charities should handle relief and business people who had money should be allowed to keep it.
Another feature of the opposition from the Liberty League was their support. For example, their actions were supported by other business groups, who tried to: campaign against Roosevelt: in 1935, the US Chamber of Commerce publicly criticised second New Deal legislation like the Wagner Act. the business groups also tried to sponsor legal challenges to the Alphabet Agencies: the Iron and Steel Institute paid for the Schechter brothers' appeal against the NRA.
Two features of the opposition to the New Deal - Huey's Long's Share Our Wealth program:
One feature of the opposition posed by Huey Long's Share Our Wealth program was his popularity. For example, Huey Long rose to fame as governor of Louisiana. He was popular because he heavily taxed rich people and big businesses in Louisiana. With this money, he provided social services, several years before the New Deal, and introduced reforms to help Louisianans. Furthermore, he set up an adult reading and writing programme and gave free textbooks to school children. As a consequence, Long's support grew and he was able to win the election to Congress as a senator.
Another feature of the opposition posed by Huey Long's Share Our Wealth program was his criticism. For example, after becoming a senator, Long was in a position to criticise the New Deal. His main objections were that: the NRA was controlled by big business, the AAA left poor tenant farmers homeless and the Social Security Act did not reduce the gap between rich and poor.
Two features of the opposition to the New Deal - Father Coughlin's Social Justice campaign:
One feature of the opposition from Father Coughlin was his platform. For example, father Charles Coughlin was a Roman Catholic priest whose parish was near the industrial city of Detroit. His weekly sermons had a national audience because, in 1930, a large radio network gave him a show called The Golden Hour of the Little Flower. The show had around 30 million listeners, which meant politicians felt the need to take his opinions seriously. At first, when Coughlin supported the New Deal, millions voted for Roosevelt. Later, when he turned against it, Roosevelt had to find a way to respond to his popular opponent.
Another feature of the opposition from Father Coughlin was his beliefs. For example, Coughlin believed the Great Depression was caused by Wall Street financiers and international bankers. The New Deal was also influenced by them and was, therefore, ineffective. Even worse, he thought communists were responsible for some of its policies and they were using Roosevelt to achieve their aims. As an alternative to the New Deal, Coughlin set up the National Union for Social Justice in November 1934. It called for: currency and banking reforms, nationalisation of parts of the US economy and a fairer taxation policy.
Two features of the opposition to the New Deal - Francis Townsend
One feature of the opposition from Francis Townsend was the origination. For example, In late 1933, Dr Francis Townsend, a retired public health officer, was shocked by the sight of three elderly women searching through bins for bits of leftover food. This, he claimed, made him want to work against poverty amongst the elderly. Furthermore, he came up with the idea for Old Age Revolving Pensions, Ltd. He proposed that everyone over the age of 60 should get $200 a month to spend within 30 days. It would be funded by a 2 per cent sales tax but the elderly people would spend the money and this would in turn help the economy to grow.
Another feature of the opposition from Francis Townsend was the deception. For example, on first inspection, Townsend's idea seemed like a good one. Old people were sensible spenders and would benefit from the income. If you did not study the figures too closely, it even sounded possible, which is why 500,000 people joined Townsend clubs and 20 million Americans signed a petition to support the plan. However, on closer inspection, the numbers made no sense. There was no way that such a huge pension could be funded by such a small tax, which is why it could not seriously challenge Roosevelt's proposed Social Security Act.
One features of the opposition to the New Deal - Upton Sinclair
One feature of the opposition from Upton Sinclair was his attempt at governorship. For example, Upton Sinclair wrote The Jungle which exposed poor conditions for workers in the meat packing industry. He used his fame to run for governor in California in 1934, using the slogan 'End Poverty In California' (EPIC). He argued that empty land and shut-down factories should be opened up for the unemployed to use. To ease their poverty, they would produce what they needed. It was an attractive idea, but it was seen as too radical, so Californians elected the Republican candidate instead.
The second New Deal - Works Progress Association
The Works Progress Association (WPA) (1935) brought together all organisations whose aim it was to create jobs. It extended work beyond building to create jobs for office workers and even unemployed actors, artists and photographers.
The second New Deal - Soil Conservation Act
The Soil Conservation Act (1937) aimed to replace the AAA programme declared illegal by the Supreme Court, it enabled the Government to continue subsidising farmers who cut their production.
The second New Deal - Resettlement Administration
The Resettlement Administration (1935) helped smallholders and tenant farmers not helped by AAA. Moved 500, 000 families to better quality land and housing. Replaced by the Farm Security Administration (FSA) in 1937.
The second New Deal - National Housing Act
The National Housing Act (1937) provided money for home loans and to cut down high rents
The second New Deal - Fair Labour Standards Act
The Fair Labour Standards Act (1938) regulated hours and conditions of work and fixed minimum wages
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