Honors Biology Semester 2 Flashcards

Vocabulary flashcards for key concepts in Biology, covering digestion, cellular respiration, photosynthesis, mitosis, DNA, protein synthesis, and genetics.

Mouth

Food is broken down here mechanically by teeth and mixed with saliva to initiate carbohydrate digestion.

Pharynx

This serves as a passageway for the bolus to the esophagus via peristalsis.

Stomach

This organ stores and mixes the bolus with gastric juices, turning it into chyme.

Small Intestine

Chyme is further broken down and nutrients are absorbed in this organ.

Large Intestine

Water is absorbed from undigested food, forming feces in this organ.

Rectum

This organ stores feces until expulsion.

Anus

Feces are expelled from the body through this opening.

Brain

The central control center of the body, responsible for thoughts, memories, perceptions, and feelings. It also coordinates and regulates the functions of all other organs.

Heart

Pumps blood throughout the body, delivering oxygen and nutrients to cells and removing waste products.

Lungs

Facilitate the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the body and the environment.

Kidneys

Filter blood and remove waste products, producing urine.

Liver

Plays a crucial role in filtering blood, producing bile for digestion, and producing proteins for blood clotting.

Ingestion

The first step, where food is taken into the body through the mouth.

Digestion

Breaks food into smaller pieces through chewing and churning with enzymes and acids to further break down food molecules.

Absorption

Nutrients from the digested food are absorbed into the bloodstream, primarily in the small intestine, then distributed to the body's cells.

Excretion

Undigested waste products are eliminated from the body, typically through the large intestine and rectum as stool.

Cellular Respiration

The breakdown of glucose in the presence of oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water, and energy stored in the form of ATP.

Mitochondria

The location where cellular respiration primarily occurs in eukaryotic cells.

Glycolysis

Initial stage of cellular respiration that occurs in the cytoplasm.

Pyruvate

Glucose molecule is broken down into two molecules of pyruvate.

Acetyl-CoA

Each pyruvate molecule is converted into this, releasing a molecule of carbon dioxide and producing more NADH.

Citric Acid Cycle

Acetyl-CoA combines with a four-carbon molecule

Oxidative Phosphorylation

NADH and FADH2 produced in the previous steps donate their electrons to here.

Photosynthesis

Converts carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen using sunlight as the energy source.

Chloroplasts

Specialized organelles found in plant and algal cells where photosynthesis takes place.

Thylakoid Membranes

The light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis take place here

Chlorophyll

Light energy is absorbed by pigments within photosystems.

Proton Gradient

Energy pumps hydrogen ions (protons) creating this to drive ATP.

ATP synthase

ATP production through chemiosmosis, powered by this enzyme.

NADP+

Re-energized electrons are used to reduce this to NADPH.

Stroma

The calvin cycle occurs here

RuBP (ribulose biphosphate)

CO2 attachment to this five-carbon sugar.

Glucose

Two G3P molecules create one molecule of this.

Mitosis

Produces two genetically identical daughter cells from a single parent cell.

Interphase

Cell grows, replicates its DNA, and prepares for division.

Prophase

Chromosomes condense, nuclear envelope breaks down, mitotic spindle forms.

Prometaphase

Nuclear envelope fully breaks down, mitotic spindle microtubules attach to kinetochores.

Metaphase

Chromosomes align along the metaphase plate.

Anaphase

Sister chromatids separate and are pulled to opposite poles of the cell.

Telophase

Chromosomes decondense, nuclear envelope reforms, mitotic spindle disassembles.

Cytokinesis

Division of the cytoplasm, resulting in two separate daughter cells.

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

Double helix structure composed of two strands of nucleotides linked by hydrogen bonds, carrying genetic code.

Nucleotides

Consisting of a sugar (deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.

Double Helix

The two strands of DNA twist around each other to form this.

Backbone

Repeating units that the sugar and phosphate groups form.

Base Pairing

adenine (A) pairs with thymine (T), and guanine (G) pairs with cytosine (C)

Hydrogen Bonds

Weak connections that the base pairs are held together by.

Antiparallel Strands

The two strands of DNA run in opposite directions.

DNA Replication

Ensures that each daughter cell receives an identical copy of the genome during cell division.

DNA Helicase

Unwinds the DNA double helix, breaking the hydrogen bonds, separating the two strands.

DNA Polymerase

Adds nucleotides to the growing new strand.

Semi-Conservative Replication

Each new DNA molecule consists of one original strand and one newly synthesized strand.

DNA

Contains the genetic code for all proteins.

mRNA

Acts as a messenger, carrying the genetic code from the DNA in the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm.

Ribosome

Sites of protein synthesis, read the mRNA sequence and use it to assemble amino acids into a polypeptide chain.

tRNA

Molecules deliver specific amino acids to the ribosome based on the mRNA codons.

Protein

The final product of protein synthesis.

Transcription

Enzyme-catalyzed process where a gene's DNA sequence is copied into a complementary RNA sequence (specifically, mRNA).

RNA polymerase

The enzyme of transcription that binds to a specific DNA sequence called a promoter, which signals the start of the gene.

Translation

Process where ribosomes use transfer RNA (tRNA) to read the mRNA sequence and link amino acids together to form a polypeptide chain.

Deletions

Remove nucleotides, potentially altering the reading frame if not a multiple of three.

Insertions

Add nucleotides, also potentially disrupting the reading frame if not a multiple of three.

Substitutions

Replace one nucleotide with another, leading to a change in the mRNA codon.

Frameshift Mutations

Deletions and insertions that are not multiples of three cause the entire reading frame to shift

Missense Mutations

Substitutions that change the amino acid encoded by the codon can alter protein structure and function.

Nonsense Mutations

Substitutions that create a stop codon prematurely terminate protein synthesis, resulting in a shortened or non-functional protein.

Sexual Reproduction

Offspring inherit one copy of each gene from each parent, resulting in a combination of genetic information from both parents.

Gametes

Specialized cells (sperm and egg) are produced through a process called meiosis.

Alleles

Organisms inherit two copies of each gene, one from each parent. These different versions of a gene are called?

Diploid

Normal body cells in sexually reproducing organisms that have two sets of chromosomes (one from each parent).

Haploid

Gametes that have only one set of chromosomes.

Dominant Inheritance

One allele masks the other.

Co-dominant Inheritance

Both alleles are expressed equally and simultaneously.