Exam-3 Critical Thinking

Psychology-103 Critical Thinking Exam Prep

What is an Analogy?

A comparison between two or more things or events.

e.g., “She’s blind as a bat”

What is a Metaphor?

A type of descriptive analogy.

Describing something rather than making a comparison.

e.g., “Life is a highway” “Her eyes sparkled as if they were diamonds”

What is a Causal argument?

Argues if something is or is not the cause of another thing.

Asks if something is or is not the direct cause of a change.

e.g., “John drank 9 beers (Cause) and is stumbling around (Change)”

(Positive causal argument).

What is a Correlation?

When two events occur together at rates higher than probability, the relationship is called a correlation.

e.g., Getting sunburnt and eating ice cream.

(One is not caused by another but can corelate as they are both present in hot environments)

What is an example of a casual argument?

Ted Bundy attempted to blame pornography for his crimes.

What are Positive VS Negative correlations?

A positive correlation is when one event increases the other.

A negative correlation has the opposite effect 

How can one evaluate an argument based on analogy?

Identify what’s being compared.

List the Similarities.

List the dissimilarities.

What is Deductive Argument?

A claim that their conclusion necessarily follows from the premises, if the premises are true and the reasoning process is valid.

e.g., No dogs are cats. Mindy is a dog. Therefore, Mindy is not a cat.

What comprises Deductive Logic?

What is Inductive Argument?

A claim that their conclusion probably follows from the premises.

e.g., Most Corgis make good watch-dogs. My dog Mindy is a Corgi. Therefore, Mindy is probably a good watchdog.

What comprises Inductive Logic?

Probability rather than certianty.

What are the three types of Inductive arguments?

What is a generalization?

Drawing a conclusion about a certain characteristic of a population based on a sample from it.

What are Analogies? 

What is a Causal Argument?

What are Polls?

A type of survey that involves collecting information from a sample group of people

What are Sampling Techniques?

Sampling, Representative Sampling, Random Sampling.

What is Sampling?

Entails selecting only some members of a class or group and then making a generalization about the whole population that is based on the characteristics of these members.

What is a Representative sample?

A sample that is similar to the larger population from which it was drawn.

What is Random Sampling?

Every member of the population has an equal chance of becoming part of the sample.

What is a Metaphor?

A descriptive type of analogy, frequently found in literature.

What is an example of a Positive Correlation?

The incidence of one event increases when the second one increases.

e.g., The more hours spent studying, the higher a student's exam scores tend to be.

What is an example of a Negative Correlation?

When the occurrence of one event increases as the other decreases.

e.g., The more hours spent exercising, the lower one's body fat percentage tends to be.

Match positive / negative causal correlation (Identify)

More Ciggerattes smoked = higher risk of lung cancer (positive causal correlation)

More hours spent exercising = lower risk of heart disease (negative causal correlation)

What makes up an Analogy?

A comparison between two or more things or events.

Analogies often contain words or phrases, such as like, as, similarly, or compared to.

What is a Deductive Argument?

A argument where the conclusion necessarily follows from the premises.

How do you identify a Deductive Argument?

The conclusion of a valid argument can be false only if one of the premises is false.

What are Syllogisms, and what is an example of one?

A deductive argument presented in the form of two supporting premises and a conclusion.

What makes a Deductive Argument Valid?

The form is such that the conclusion must be true if the premises are assumed to be true.

The conclusion of a valid argument can be false only if one of the premises is false.

What makes an Deductive Argument Invalid?

The conclusion of a valid argument can be false only if one of the premises is false.

What makes up the Forum of an Argument?

What is a Sound Argument?

A deductive argument that is valid and that has true premises.

What is a Unsound Argument?

A deductive argument that has one or more false premises.

What is a Argument by Elimination?

A deductive argument that rules out different possibilities until only one remains.

What are Arguments based on Mathematics?

The conclusion depends on a mathematical or geometrical calculation.

e.g., “My dormitory room is rectangular in shape. One side measures 11 feet and the side adjacent to it measures 14 feet in length. Therefore, my room is 154 square feet.”

What are Arguments from Definition?

A deductive argument in which the conclusion is true because it is based on the definition of a key term.

What is Quantity?

Whether a categorical proposition is universal or particular.

What is a Quantifier?

A term, such as all, no, or not, which indicates whether a proposition is affirmative or negative.

What is Quantity vs Qualifier?

(Review pg. 271)

What are the Three Hypothetical Syllogisms

Modus ponens, Modus tollens, Chain argument.

What is a Hypothetical Syllogism?

A deductive argument that contains two premises, at least one of which is a conditional statement.

What is an example of Modus ponens (Affirming the antecedent).

A hypothetical syllogism in which the antecedent premise is affirmed by the consequent premise.

What is an example of Modus tollens (Denying the consequent).

A hypothetical syllogism in which the antecedent premise is denied by the consequent premise.

What are Chain Arguments

A type of imperfect hypothetical argument with three or more conditional propositions linked together.

What are the differences between Deductive and Inductive Arguments?

Deductive arguments claim that their conclusion necessarily follows from the premises.

Inductive arguments only claim that their conclusion probably follows from the premises.

Deductive arguments can be true or false, whereas inductive arguments are stronger or weaker.

What makes a Valid Argument? (Concept)

What is Moral Reasoning?

What are Aristotle’s Thoughts?

What are the Differences / Distinguishers of Moral Values?

What are the Differences / Distinguishers of Nonmoral Values?

Who is Phineas P Gage?

What is a Moral Tragedy?

What is Conscious + Affect?

What are Moral Sentiments?

What is Guilt?

What is Shame?

What are the differences between Guilt and Shame?

Who is Psychologist Lawrence?

What are Kohlberg views?

What are Kohlberg’s three levels?

Preconventional, Conventional, Postconventional.

What is Kohlberg’s Preconventional level?

What is Kohlberg’s Conventional level?

What is Kohlberg’s Postconventional Level?

What is a Justice Perspective?

What are the 4 types of Universal Moral Theories?

Utilitarianism, Deontology, Natural-rights, Ethics.

What are Liberty Rights?

What are Welfare Rights?

What are the differences in Welfare / Liberty rights?

What is Virtue?

What is the Helpers High?

What is Compassion?

What is Empathy?

What is Resentment?

What is Guilt?

What is Moral Outrage?

What is the Principle of Utility?

What is the Greatest Happiness Principle?