Exam-3 Critical Thinking

Psychology-103 Critical Thinking Exam Prep

What is an Analogy?

A comparison between two or more things or events.

e.g., “She’s blind as a bat”

What is a Metaphor?

A type of descriptive analogy.

Describing something rather than making a comparison.

e.g., “Life is a highway” “Her eyes sparkled as if they were diamonds”

What is a Causal argument?

Argues if something is or is not the cause of another thing.

Asks if something is or is not the direct cause of a change.

e.g., “John drank 9 beers (Cause) and is stumbling around (Change)”

(Positive causal argument).

What is a Correlation?

When two events occur together at rates higher than probability, the relationship is called a correlation.

e.g., Getting sunburnt and eating ice cream.

(One is not caused by another but can corelate as they are both present in hot environments)

What is an example of a casual argument?

Ted Bundy attempted to blame pornography for his crimes.

What are Positive VS Negative correlations?

A positive correlation is when one event increases the other.

A negative correlation has the opposite effect 

How can one evaluate an argument based on analogy?

Identify what’s being compared.

List the Similarities.

List the dissimilarities.

What is a Deductive Argument?

A claim that their conclusion necessarily follows from the premises, if the premises are true and the reasoning process is valid.

e.g., No dogs are cats. Mindy is a dog. Therefore, Mindy is not a cat.

What comprises Deductive Logic?

A Theory > Hypothesis > Observation > Confirmation.

The main rhythm for deductive logic

What is Inductive Argument?

A claim that their conclusion probably follows from the premises.

e.g., Most Corgis make good watch-dogs. My dog Mindy is a Corgi. Therefore, Mindy is probably a good watchdog.

What comprises Inductive Logic?

Probability rather than certainty.

What are the three types of Inductive arguments?

Generalization, Analogies, Causal arguments.

What is a generalization?

Drawing a conclusion about a certain characteristic of a population based on a sample from it.

What are Analogies within Inductive arguments?

A comparison between two or more things or events.

Analogies often contain words or phrases, such as like, as, similarly, or compared to.

What is a Causal Argument in a Inductive argument?

Argues if something is or is not the cause of another thing.

Asks if something is or is not the direct cause of a change.

What are Polls?

A type of survey that involves collecting information from a sample group of people

What are Sampling Techniques?

Sampling, Representative Sampling, Random Sampling.

What is Sampling?

Entails selecting only some members of a class or group and then making a generalization about the whole population that is based on the characteristics of these members.

What is a Representative sample?

A sample that is similar to the larger population from which it was drawn.

What is Random Sampling?

Every member of the population has an equal chance of becoming part of the sample.

What is a Metaphor?

A descriptive type of analogy, frequently found in literature.

What is an example of a Positive Correlation?

The incidence of one event increases when the second one increases.

e.g., The more hours spent studying, the higher a student's exam scores tend to be.

What is an example of a Negative Correlation?

When the occurrence of one event increases as the other decreases.

e.g., The more hours spent exercising, the lower one's body fat percentage tends to be.

Match positive / negative causal correlation (Identify)

More Ciggerattes smoked = higher risk of lung cancer (positive causal correlation)

More hours spent exercising = lower risk of heart disease (negative causal correlation)

What makes up an Analogy?

A comparison between two or more things or events.

Analogies often contain words or phrases, such as like, as, similarly, or compared to.

How do you identify a Deductive Argument?

Seek out the premises in argument and if they are direct statements true/false, the argument is deductive.

Identify if the conclusion matches the premise.

What are Syllogisms, and what is an example of one?

A deductive argument presented in the form of two supporting premises and a conclusion.

What makes a Deductive Argument Valid?

The form is such that the conclusion must be true if the premises are assumed to be true.

e.g., I am a human, humans are not dogs, therefore I am not a dog. (Truth)

What makes an Deductive Argument Invalid?

The conclusion of a valid argument can be false only if one of the premises is false.

e.g., I am a human, humans are animals, therefore I am a dog. (False)

What makes up the Forum of an Argument?

Premises (the reasons or evidence) that logically lead to a conclusion (the main claim or assertion).

What is a Sound Argument?

A deductive argument that is valid and that has true premises.

What is a Unsound Argument?

A deductive argument that has one or more false premises.

What is a Argument by Elimination?

A deductive argument that rules out different possibilities until only one remains.

What are Arguments based on Mathematics?

The conclusion depends on a mathematical or geometrical calculation.

e.g., “My dormitory room is rectangular in shape. One side measures 11 feet and the side adjacent to it measures 14 feet in length. Therefore, my room is 154 square feet.”

What are Arguments from Definition?

A deductive argument in which the conclusion is true because it is based on the definition of a key term.

What is Quantity?

Whether a categorical proposition is universal or particular.

What is a Quantifier?

A term, such as all, no, or not, which indicates whether a proposition is affirmative or negative.

What is Quantity vs Qualifier?

Quantity is universal or particular.

Qualifiers are affirmative or negative.

If a proposition refers to every member of a class it is Universal.

e.g., All trees are plants.

If a proposition is particular it is Affirmative or Negative

e.g., Some nurses are not women (Particular negative).

What are the Three Hypothetical Syllogisms

Modus ponens, Modus tollens, Chain argument.

What is a Hypothetical Syllogism?

A deductive argument that contains two premises, at least one of which is a conditional statement.

What is an example of Modus ponens (Affirming the antecedent).

A hypothetical syllogism in which the antecedent premise is affirmed by the consequent premise.

What is an example of Modus tollens (Denying the consequent).

A hypothetical syllogism in which the antecedent premise is denied by the consequent premise.

What are Chain Arguments

A type of imperfect hypothetical argument with three or more conditional propositions linked together.

What are the differences between Deductive and Inductive Arguments?

Deductive arguments claim that their conclusion necessarily follows from the premises.

Inductive arguments only claim that their conclusion probably follows from the premises.

Deductive arguments can be true or false, whereas inductive arguments are stronger or weaker.

What makes a Valid Argument? (Concept)

A valid argument is one where if the premises are true, the conclusion must also be true.

It’s about logical structure, not truth of the premises. Validity means the reasoning is logically sound, even if the premises are false.

e.g., P1 All cats are reptiles. P2: Fluffy is a cat. C: Fluffy is a reptile.

This argument is valid (logically consistent), but not sound (premises are false).

What is Moral Reasoning?

We engage in it when we make a decision about what we ought or ought not to do.

Engages with our cultural understanding of morality and personal morals.

What are Aristotle’s Thoughts on Morality?

He taught that morality is the most fundamental expression of our rational nature.

That we are happiest when we put moral values above non-moral values.

What are the Differences / Distinguishers of Moral Values?

Association of morality + happiness + well-being.

Moral Values Benefit yourself and others.

Are worthwhile for their own sake.

What are the Differences / Distinguishers of Nonmoral Values?

Instrumental values (Nonmoral values) are goal-oriented.

The value of something as a means-to-an-end we wish to achieve. (Chopping veggies to put in a stew. No morality involved)

Includes: Independence, Fame, Money, Chopping veggies.

Who is Phineas P Gage?

A man who had a steel pipe go through his frontal lobe but survived the injury.

He was no longer able to engage in moral reasoning as he lost his frontal lobe.

What is a Moral Tragedy?

Failure to take appropriate moral action or make a decision that we later regret.

e.g., Milgram obedience study.

What is Conscience + Affect?

Comes from the Latin words, Com: ”With” and Scire: “To Know”

A well developed conscience provides us with what is right and wrong.

The basic structure is innate, it can be nurtured or neglected, its shaped by family religion and culture.

What are Moral Sentiments?

Emotions that alert us to moral situations.

Motivate us to do what is right.

What’s included:

“Helper’s High” Empathy and Sympathy, Compassion.

What is Guilt?

Feeling bad about something you did.

What is Shame?

Feeling bad about yourself as a person.

What are the differences between Guilt and Shame?

Guilt results when we commit a moral wrong or violate a moral principle.

Shame occurs as a result of the violation of a social norm.

Not living up to someone else’s expectations for us

What did Psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg argue?

Human beings develop through distinct stages in their moral reasoning.

Three stages are transcultural and represent increased proficiency in critical thinking skills.

What are Kohlberg’s three levels?

Preconventional, Conventional, Postconventional.

What happens in Kohlberg’s Preconventional level?

Morality is defined egotistically in terms of oneself.

People at this level expect others to treat them morally but generally do not reciprocate unless they derive benefit.

Most people outgrow this stage by high school.

What is Kohlberg’s Conventional level?

People look for others for moral guidance, and conform to peer group norms.

They believe there are Right & Wrong answers, and that those in authority have the right answers.

People substitute wider norms and laws of culture for peer group norms.

This process is called: Cultural Relativism.

What is Kohlberg’s Postconventional Level?

People recognize that social conventions need to be justified.

Moral decisions should be based on universal moral principles and on concerns such as justice, compassion, and mutual respect.

Less than 10% of American Adults reach this level.

What is a Justice Perspective?

The emphasis on duty and principles in moral reasoning.

What are the 4 types of Universal Moral Theories?

Utilitarianism, Deontology, Natural-rights, Ethics.

What are Liberty Rights?

The right to be left alone to pursue our legitimate interests.

What are Welfare Rights?

The right to receive certain social goods that are essential to our well-being.

What are the differences in Welfare / Liberty rights?

Welfare Rights:
➤ Right to receive essential social goods (e.g., healthcare, education, housing).
➤ Emphasize positive duties—others must provide support or services.
➤ Aim to ensure basic well-being and equal opportunity.

Liberty Rights:
➤ Right to be left alone to pursue legitimate interests (e.g., free speech, privacy).
➤ Emphasize negative duties—others must not interfere.
➤ Protect individual freedom and autonomy.

What are Virtue Ethics?

Moral theories that emphasize character over right actions.

What is the Helpers High?

Helper’s High is the emotional boost people feel after helping others.

• It’s linked to the release of feel-good chemicals like endorphins.

• Encourages more altruistic behavior and improves well-being.

• e.g., After volunteering at a shelter, you feel energized, joyful, and fulfilled

What is Compassion?

Compassion is the emotional response to another’s suffering, combined with a desire to help.

• Goes beyond empathy by including a motivation to act.

• e.g., Seeing someone homeless and offering them food or support.

What is Empathy?

Empathy is the ability to understand and share another person’s feelings.

• It’s about feeling with someone, not just for them.

• e.g., You feel sad when your friend is grieving, even if you haven’t experienced the same loss.

What is Resentment?

Resentment is a bitter feeling of anger or displeasure due to perceived unfair treatment.

• Often builds over time and can damage relationships.

• e.g., Feeling resentful toward a coworker who takes credit for your work.

What is Guilt?

Guilt is a moral emotion that arises when we believe we’ve done something wrong.

• It motivates us to make amends or change our behavior.

• e.g., You feel guilty for lying to a friend and decide to apologize.

What is Moral Outrage?

Moral outrage is a strong emotional reaction to perceived injustice or unethical behavior.

• Can lead to activism or protest.

• e.g., Feeling outraged after witnessing discrimination and speaking out against it.

What is the Principle of Utility?

• States that an action is right if it produces the most overall utility (usefulness or benefit).

• Focuses on maximizing outcomes—usually defined as happiness or pleasure and minimizing pain.

• Associated with Jeremy Bentham, who defined utility as the balance of pleasure over pain.

What is the Greatest Happiness Principle?

• A refinement of the Principle of Utility.

• States that actions are right if they promote the greatest happiness for the greatest number.

• Emphasizes quality of pleasures, not just quantity.

• Adds a moral dimension by focusing on happiness as the ultimate good.