Unit 3: Cognitive Development & Intelligence - Test Review

Piaget’s Theory

• Believed cognitive development was a progressive reorganization of mental processes that resulted from biological maturation + environmental experience.

• About the nature of development of human intelligence.

• Focused his work on two processes named assimilation and accommodation

  • Assimilation = how humans perceive and adapt to new information - process of fitting new information into pre-existing cognitive schemas.

  • Accommodation = process of taking new information in one’s environment and altering pre-existing schemas.

    • Schema = pattern of thought or behavior that organizes categories of information + relationships among them.

Ley Vykotsky’s Theory

• Argued that children actively construct their knowledge

• Much emphasis on 2 factors: social interaction and culture 

  • Claims that this guides cognitive development 

• Cognitive development involves learning  

  • Development happens through learning

• Range of tasks that are too difficult for the child to master alone but can be learned with guidance and assistance from adults or more-skilled children.

  • Through interactions with others (more skilled adults), they will gain the tools to be successful in their own culture.

• Cognitive development involves learning to use in society (Language, mathematical systems, and memory strategies).

• In one culture, children might learn to count with the help of a computer; in another, they might learn by using beads.

Noam Chomsky’s Theory

• Proposed that humans are biologically prewired to learn language at a certain time and way.

• Children are born into the world with a Language Acquisition Device (LAD), a biological endowment that enables the child to detect certain features and rules of language.

  • Critics argue that even if infants have something like a LAD, it cannot explain the whole story of language acquisition.

• Equipped by nature with the ability to detect the sounds of language.

• Language milestones are very similar between different languages and cultures.

Maria Montessori Theory

• Beginning of the 20th century, Montessori crafted a revolutionary approach to young children’s education.

• The Montessori Approach is a philosophy of education in which children are given considerable freedom and spontaneity in choosing activities.

• Teacher is a facilitator rather than a director.

• Encourages child to make decisions at a young age, so they become self-regulated problem solvers who can make choices and manage their time effectively.

Robert Sternberg Theory

• Established the “Triarchic Theory of Intelligence”:

  • states that intelligence comes in three forms

1. Analytical Intelligence = which refers to the ability to analyze, judge, evaluate, compare, and contrast; 

2. Creative Intelligence = which consists of the ability to create, design, invent, originate, and imagine; and 

3. Practical Intelligence = which involves the ability to use, apply, implement, and put ideas into practice.

Analytic	Creative	Practical
Students with high ability tend to be favored in conventional schooling. Do well under direct instruction, where the teacher lectures and gives students objective tests. Considered to be “smart” students who get good grades, show up in high-level tracks, and do well on traditional tests.	Students with high ability often are not on the top rung of their class. Too often when a teacher’s desire to increase students’ knowledge suppresses creative thinking. On assignments, instead of giving conformist answers, they give unique answers = lower mark.	Students with high ability often do not relate well to school demands. However, many of these children do well outside of school… may have excellent social skills and common sense.  Adults become successful managers, entrepreneurs, or politicians despite their grades.

Lawrence Kohlberg’s Theory + 6 Stages

• Studied male children in order to chart moral development in children.

• As children gain social and intellectual skills, they are better able to understand the complexities of right and wrong.

• Concluded that our ability to judge the morality of actions evolves through stages as our brains develop.

• We move through them as we deal with moral and ethical issues and as we grow and experience the world:

  • Stage 1 = Heteronomous Morality

    • Children obey because adults tell them to obey. People base their moral decisions on fear of punishment.

  • Stage 2 = Individualism, Instrumental Purpose, & Exchange

    • Individuals pursue their own interests but let others do the same. What is right involves equal exchange.

  • Stage 3 = Mutual Interpersonal Expectations, Relationships, & Interpersonal Conformity

    • Individuals value trust, caring, and loyalty to others as a basis for moral judgement.

  • Stage 4 = Social System Morality

    • Moral judgements are based on understanding and the social order, law, justice, and duty.

  • Stage 5 = Social Contract or Utility and Individual RIghts

    • Individuals reason that values, rights, and principles undergird or transcend the law.

  • Stage 6 = Universal Ethical Principles

    • The person has developed moral judgements that are based on universal human rights. When faced with a dilemma between law and conscience, a personal, individualized conscience is followed.

Carol Gilligan’s Theory

• 1970’s - she realized that most moral development theory was based on “Privileged white men”

• Revolutionized moral development thinking with research on men AND women

• 3 stages:

  • Selfish Stage

  • Belief in Conventional Morality

  • Post-Conventional Morality

• Male approach to morality = a “justice orientation”. Individuals have certain rights that need to be respected; therefore, the individual’s behaviour is limited

• Female approach to morality = a “responsibility orientation”. Being moral means that you have to care for others

  • Encourages parents to nurture morality differently in males and females.

Robert Cole’s Theory

• Believes that the behavior of parents shapes the moral character of their children from birth.

• Research indicates that when parents try to protect a child’s self-esteem, moral development may suffer because children are unable to learn clear concepts of right and wrong.

• For children to achieve adulthood with good moral development, it is necessary for parents and caregivers to model good moral behaviours.

John Q Movie + Relation to Unit *Lesson 2

• Kohlberg’s Theory = John Q reaches Stage 6 (Universal Ethical Principles) by prioritizing human life over laws, following his conscience to act for the greater good.

• Gilligan’s Responsibility Orientation = John’s morality is rooted in care and responsibility, as he sacrifices for his son out of love rather than adhering to justice-based rules.

• Coles’ Role Modeling = John’s actions model strong moral values for his son, influencing Michael’s understanding of right and wrong through his father’s bravery and selflessness.

Theory of Mind

• Understanding others by ascribing them to different mental states, such as beliefs, desires, intentions, emotions, and thoughts.

• Children = During infancy and early childhood, children learn the skills they’ll need to develop their theory of mind later on. These skills include the ability to:

  • Pay attention to people and copy them.

  • Recognize others’ emotions and use words to express them.

  • Know that they are different from other people and have different likes/dislikes from others.

  • Know that people act according to the things they want.

  • Understand the causes and consequences of emotions (If I throw my toy, Mom will be mad).

  • Pretend to be someone else (like a doctor or a cashier) when they play

• Between 4-5, children begin:

  • Understanding “wanting”

  • Understanding “thinking”

  • Understanding that “seeing leads to knowing”

  • Understanding “hidden feelings”

Dualistic Thinking

• Assumes a universe where there are only two contrasting, mutually exclusive choices or realities. 

• An "either/or" approach.

  • Ex. = being viewed either good or bad, right or wrong, black or white, without considering the possibility of shades of gray or intermediate positions.

• When you live in society and you learn what is wrong vs. right according to the role models that surround you. 

• Adolescence = most popular period for this since it is mostly peer pressure.  

Reflective Thinking

• Taking the bigger picture and understanding all of its consequences. It means truly trying to understand why you did what you did, and why that's important.

• Complex form of cognition almost exclusively associated with adulthood. 

• Depends on the ability to think abstractly.

• Does not automatically emerge.

• It is a skill that must be constructed.

• First defined by John Dewey

  • Key elements of Dewey’s definition:

    1. the use of evidence and reasoning

    2. the questioning of knowledge and beliefs

    3. the active pursuit of justifiable conclusions—constitute the basis for most contemporary theories that address, in whole or in part, the development of reflective thinking

Wisdom

• Expert knowledge about the practical aspects of life that permits excellent judgement about important matters. 

• Exceptional insight into human development + life matters, good judgment, and an understanding of how to cope with difficult life problems. 

• High levels of wisdom are rare.

• Adolescence + Early Adulthood = main age for wisdom.

• Factors other than age are critical for wisdom to develop to a high level. Ex. certain life experiences.

• Begins to develop in adolescence, but fully develops in late adulthood.

Information Processing Theory

• A way of understanding how the brain works when it comes to thinking and learning.

• Emphasizes that individuals manipulate, monitor, and strategize information. 

• Individuals develop a gradually increasing capacity for processing information; allows them to acquire complex knowledge and skills.

• *Robert Siegler (2006, 2012, 2013)

• Thinking as Information Processing:

  • Involves perceiving, encoding, representing, storing, and retrieving information.

• Development Through Strategy:

  • Learning effective strategies for processing information.

  • Good strategies help improve cognitive abilities and problem-solving skills.

Information Processing Model + How it Works

1. Input = We take in information through our senses (like seeing, hearing, or touching).

2. Processing = Our brain organizes, interprets, and makes sense of this information.

3. Storage = We store the information in our memory for future use.

4. Output = We use the stored information when needed, such as when we make decisions, solve problems, or recall facts.

• We take in information (like input), process it (like a computer processing data), and then store it in our memory (like saving files). Later, we can retrieve that information when needed.

• Neurons communicate by sending electrical and chemical signals across synapses, which are tiny gaps between neurons. Axons carry signals away from the neuron, while dendrites bring them in. During early development, neurons form many connections, but only the ones used often are strengthened, while unused ones are put away.

What is Language

• A form of communication—whether spoken, written, or signed—that is based on a system of symbols. Language consists of the words used by a community and the rules for varying and combining them.

  • The ability to speak = vocals + nervous system.

Language Acquisition

• Children already know most of the grammar of their native language before they are 5-years-old.

• Two regions involved in language were first discovered in studies of brain-damaged individuals: 

  • Broca’s area = an area in the left frontal lobe of the brain involved in producing words.

  • Wernicke’s area = an area in brain’s left hemisphere involved in language comprehension.

  • *Damage to either of these areas produces loss or impairment of language processing. 

• Damage to Broca’s area = difficulty producing words.

• Damage to Wernicke’s area = poor comprehension and often produce fluent but incomprehensible speech.

Part 1: How Does Language Develop Over the Lifespan + Each Stage of Life

• Infancy

  • Recognize sounds through hearing and observation.

  • Vocalizations = crying, cooing, and babbling.

  • Early communication through showing, pointing, and simple motions.

  • First Words = people, objects, animals, and greetings.

  • Simple phrases for identification, location, and possession.

• Early Childhood

  • By age 3 = most vowel and consonant sounds are learned.

  • Words are learned through interest, interaction, meaning, and clear explanations.

Part 2: How Does Language Develop Over the Lifespan + Each Stage of Life

• Middle-Late Childhood

  • Increased vocabulary and understanding of sounds (Alphabetic Principle).

  • Better reasoning, grammar, and ability to connect ideas orally and in writing.

• Adolescence to Late Adulthood

  • Understanding language structure.

  • Learning to use language appropriately in different contexts.

• Late Adulthood

  • Generally maintained but vocabulary growth may slow.

  • Word retrieval issues, slower speech, and hearing difficulties.

  • Causes = poor listening conditions, lack of visual cues, and hearing loss.

What is Intelligence

• The ability to solve problems and to adapt and learn from experiences. Interest in intelligence has often focused on individual differences and assessment.

Part 1: The 5 Aspects of Intelligence + Detail

1. Infant Intelligence

   • Emotions (Birth to 18 months)

     • Understanding others and developing emotions

   • Math & Logic (Ages 1-5)

     • Problem-solving skills are directly related to the senses

   • Speech (Birth to Age 10)

     • Ability to learn any language

2. Multiple Intelligences

   • Verbal = The ability to think in words and use language to express meaning.

     • Ex. Writers, poets, lawyers, journalists, and teachers

   • Mathematical = The ability to carry out mathematical operations.

     • Ex. Scientists, mathematicians, and engineers

   • Spatial = The ability to think three-dimensionally.

     • Ex. Musicians, composers, and sound engineers

   • Bodily-Kinesthetic = The ability to manipulate objects and be physically adept.

     • Ex. Athletes, dancers, surgeons, and craftspeople

   • Musical = A sensitivity to pitch, melody, rhythm, and tone.

     • Ex. Architects, artists, pilots, and engineers

   • Interpersonal = The ability to understand and interact effectively with others.

     • Ex. Teachers, therapists, salespeople, and leaders

   • Intrapersonal = The ability to understand oneself.

     • Ex. Philosophers, psychologists, and spiritual leaders

   • Naturalist = The ability to observe patterns in nature and understand natural and human-made systems.

     • Ex. Biologists, farmers, conservationists, and botanists

Part 2: The 5 Aspects of Intelligence + Detail

3. Social Intelligence

   • Intelligence or IQ, is largely what you are born with *Genetics play a large part.

   • Social intelligence (SI) tho is mostly learned. SI develops from experience with people and learning from successes and failures in social settings. It is more commonly referred to as “common sense” or “street smarts.”

   • Key Elements:

     • Verbal Fluency and Conversational Skills

     • Knowledge of Social Roles, Rules, and Scripts

     • Effective Listening Skills.

     • Understanding What Makes Other People Tick

     • Role Playing and Social Self-Efficacy

     • Impression Management Skills

4. Emotional Intelligence

   • EI is the ability to understand and manage your own emotions, and those of the people around you. 

   • People with a high degree of EI know what they're feeling, what their emotions mean, and how these emotions can affect other people.

   • According to Daniel Goleman, there are 5 key elements to it:

     1. Self-awareness

     2. Self-regulation

     3. Motivation

     4. Empathy

     5. Social skills

   • At a personal level, EI helps us:

     • Have uncomfortable conversations without hurting feelings

     • Manage our emotions when stressed or feeling overwhelmed

     • Improve relationships with the people we care about

   • At work, EI can help us:

     • Resolve conflicts

     • Coach and motivate others

     • Create a culture of collaboration

     • Build psychological safety within teams

Part 3: The 5 Aspects of Intelligence + Detail

5. Fluid + Crystalized Intelligence

   • Fluid Intelligence = Involves being able to think and reason abstractly and solve problems. This ability is considered independent of learning, experience, and education.

     • Characteristics = Involves quick thinking and adaptability; Supports problem-solving in unfamiliar situations; Relies on working memory and cognitive processing speed.

     • Ex. = Solving puzzles or riddles; Identifying patterns or relationships between objects; Navigating a new city without prior knowledge.

     • Development Over Time = Peaks in early adulthood (around age 20–30); Gradually declines with age, particularly as processing speed slows.

   • Crystalized Intelligence = Crystallized intelligence is based upon facts and rooted in experiences. As we age and accumulate new knowledge and understanding, crystallized intelligence becomes stronger.

     • Characteristics = Involves applying learned knowledge; Increases with age as experiences and education build; Often improves or remains stable into late adulthood.

     • Ex. = Solving math problems using learned formulas; Understanding vocabulary or historical facts; Giving advice based on life experience.

     • Development Over Time = Continues to grow as people acquire more knowledge and experience; Less likely to decline with age compared to fluid intelligence.

Is Intelligence Genetics or the Enviornment

• Both genetics and the environment contribute to intelligence.

  • Genetics = sets the foundation

  • Environment = plays a crucial role in determining how intelligence develops over time.

• Environmental factors like education, nutrition, and stimulation can enhance cognitive abilities. Therefore, it is best viewed as the result of a dynamic interaction between nature and nurture.

  • Nature = refers to the biological and genetic predispositions that influence who we are. It includes all traits and characteristics that are inherited from our parents.

  • Nurture = refers to the external factors and life experiences that influence our development. It includes the environment we grow up in, our interactions, and the opportunities we are given.

The “3 Identical Strangers Documentary” + Connect to Nature vs. Nurture

	David (Working-Class)	Eddy (Middle-Class)	Robert (Upper-Class)
Family Environment	Nurturing, grounded, practical.	Strict, high expectations, pressure.	Affluent, distant, emotionally detached.
Mental Health	Resilient with struggles managed.	Emotional strain led to tragedy (Suicide).	Anger and disconnection at times.
Identity and Confidence	Strong family ties, practical.	Emotional vulnerability, unsure.	Confident but isolated emotionally.
Impact of Experiment	Adapted better due to support.	Most severely impacted emotionally.	Frustrated, angry at manipulation.

• While genetics (nature) provides the blueprint for who we are, nurture—the environment, relationships, and experiences—plays a more powerful role in shaping outcomes, particularly mental health and personality.

• Highlights that without a supportive and nurturing environment, even individuals with the same genetic foundation can experience vastly different, and sometimes tragic, results.