FOR 435 Midterm

Alpha Diversity

The most basic measurement of biodiversity that simply counts the number of species is:

Endemic

Species that are unique to a specific geographic area and naturally found nowhere else are called:

maximum sustainable yield

The "sweet spot" whereby one can exploit a living resource in order to optimize harvest numbers while still keeping the population stable is called:

area sensitivity effect

A fragmentation effect whereby some species, particularly birds, are most likely found in larger habitat patches then their individual needs (home range) indicate is called:

Allopatric speciation

When new species are formed (speciation) as a result of geographic barriers we call this:

biological species

This definition of species is based on reproductive outputs (viable offspring and reproductive isolation) and is called:

\

cladogram

This kind of drawing is used to illustrate a hypothesis about phylogeny, or how evidence suggests that organisms have evolved and are related across geological time. While in the past it was based largely on comparative morphology and embryology, when available, genetic data is usually given top consideration.

Great American Biotic Interchange; spread of placental mammals into South America and decline of marsupial mammals there

Continental drift and other geological or climatic events, as well as invasive species establishment, typically result in exchanges of species that suddenly come into contact with each other. Such events can lead to big changes in structure, function, and species composition. Which of these is an example of such an event AND is correctly paired with its outcome?

Adaptive radiation

Rapid speciation, particularly when colonization events occurs in new habitats, is called:

upper Midwest (MN, WI, IA, IN, IL)

In the U.S., we find the highest concentrations of biodiversity in all but which of the following areas?

low disturbance forests are characterized by shade-tolerant dominant species

Which is TRUE of the forest diversity model known as the **intermediate disturbance hypothesis**?

Norway

Which country (accompanied by its average latitude) would likely have the LOWEST alpha diversity?

Italy - 40 degrees N

Norway - 60 degrees N

Panama - 9 degrees N

Namibia - 22 degrees S

Laos - 17 degrees N

patch size, distance to mainland or another patch

Which of the following pairs are the most important **geophysical attributes** that determine species presence or absence on a given patch of land or water?

colonization, extinction

Likewise, the 2 **processes** that dictate species presence or absence on a given patch of land or water, and operate to create a dynamic equilibrium are:

redundant hypothesis

The hypothesis that best explains the relationship between species richness and ecosystem function is:

beta diversity, false

The measurement of species turnover (how frequently one encounters new species) from one ecosystem to another is called (answer 1), and true or false (answer 2) it is used to identify global biodiversity hotspots.

high dependence on moisture from eastern portions where deforestation is highest

Why is the western and interior portions of the Amazon rainforest particularly vulnerable to current patterns of deforestation?

freshwater streams, tallgrass prairie

Which combination of habitats would you find the MOST threatened and endangered species in the U.S.?

contrast

The difference between adjacent habitats is called:

matrix effect

When species behaviorally remain on habitat patches and thus become self-isolating we call it this special fragmentation effect:

metapopulation; island biogeography

Where a species habitat occurs non-contiguously, we see the occasional exchange of individuals between patches, a structure we call a (Answer 1) and which is maintained via the dynamics of this theory (Answer 2). 

edge: interior ratio increases

As habitat patch size decreases, we should expect what to occur?

alpha diversity increases

When an invasive plant species establishes within an ecosystem, which of the following is TRUE?

poisons targeting predators and scavengers

Which of the following chemicals are leading to declines in global vulture populations?

excess fertilizers, river estuaries

Hypoxic deadzones are caused by (Answer 1) and are often found here (Answer 2).

decline in small marsupials; small-mouthed snakes

The introduction of cane toads into Australia had which of the following effects?

few available niches; increased propagule pressure

Elton studied invasive species and stated that species rich communities were much more likely to resist invasive species establishment? First, why? (Answer 1) and, second, how might an invasive species overcome this? (Answer 2)?

Morphological Species

Observable characteristics with distinct groups

Genetic species

group of interbreeding individuals among populations that are genetically isolated from other groups

Morphological and biological species

2 most commonly used species definitions are

Adaptive radiation

evolutionary process whereby organisms rapidly give rise to new forms caused by abundant or novel resources, competition, predation, major or other environmental challenge

Sympatric speciation

unique local selection pressures or genetic processes within contiguous populations/shared habitat lead to genetic polymorphisms.

Biome: Temperate Broadleaf and Mixed Forest

Ecoregions:

• Appalachian Mixed-Mesophytic Forests (east)

• Central U.S. Hardwood Forests (central)

• Mississippi Lowland Forests (small portion of west)

What is Kentucky’s biome and 3 ecoregions?

Guild/Functional group

use resources in similar ways but partition the resources by space (spatially) and time (temporally).

Population

local occurrence individuals of the same species; typically the unit of management used to maintain viability in natural patterns, abundances, and distributions

Tropical rainforest and coral reefs

Where is species richness often the highest?

Beta Diversity

rate of change in spp. across/among habitats, often communities or ecosystems; an approximation of regional diversity

Gamma Diversity

\# of species across a larger landscape or larger geographic time scales

Current major threats to biodiversity

• Habitat Related (Loss, Degradation, Fragmentation)

• Pollution (Chemical, Light, and Noise) • Overexploitation

• Invasive Species

• Anthropogenic Climate Change

• Disease (lesser threat to most taxa)

• UV radiation (primarily threat to amphibians

* Synergistic threats

Current major threats to biodiversity

Coral reefs

– Climate change

– Acidity

– Fungi

– Pollution

What is an example of a synergistic threat

Cascade effect

One factor can create a trophic cascading domino-like effect within an ecosystem that leads to secondary losses of other species

Habitat loss

What factor is the most threatening to biodiversity?

Habitat Generalists

can exploit a variety of habitats within an area/range; can easily switch from available and/or preferred to less preferred habitats (ex. white-tailed deer)

Habitat Specialists

can exploit (usually very well) 1 or only a few habitats within an area/range; most habitats unsuitable and cannot be used (ex. desert pupfish)

Rare species, declining species, and species that occur at Sites of High Human Exploitation

What types of Species are Most Vulnerable To Extinction?

IUCN Red List, Blue List, NatureServe

Three conservation databases:

Habitat Conversion/Transformation

change in habitat, can result in degradation or loss

Habitat Loss

habitat changed in way that usually adversely affects most or all species, effects longer term

Habitat Degradation

decline in habitat quality, affects many but not all species, may be temporary

Habitat Fragmentation

breaking habitat up into smaller pieces that are isolated from one another

Matrix Effects

Not able or willing to move among habitat patches because of poor habitat in between

Eutrophication

an accumulation of excessive nutrients, particularly nitrates and phosphates from fertilizers and sewage, in aquatic systems that leads to explosive growth of phytoplankton.

Species Vulnerable to Fragmentation:

• Wide ranging (need lots of space; elephants, wolverines, wolves, migratory animals)

• Nonvagile – poor dispersers, intolerant dispersers (plants that drop heavy seeds, animals that can’t move far)

• Habitat Specialists

• Large-patch/Interior requirements – those species that like the security of a large block of habitat

• Low Fecundity/Recruitment – low reproductive rate, or low survival of offspring to reproductive age

• Low Tolerance to Humans

Species Vulnerable to Fragmentation:

Light pollution, toxins, chemical spills and dumping, EDC’s, Air pollution, impacts of acid rain

Other Major Causes of Habitat Loss and Degradation

\

Overexploitation

The unsustainable exploitation (harvesting) of resources

Factors that determine invasiveness

1. Propagule pressure:

2. Good ecological match to new environment.

3. Most are able to cope with problems of small founder pops; persist at low densities until conditions are good for growth

4. Association with human activity

5. Previous history of successful invasion

Factors that determine invasiveness

The “Tens Rule”

Thus about 1/1000 species introduced will become invasive, as a general rule of thumb

Elton’s Biotic Resistance Hypothesis

species rich communities more stable and better able to deal with invasive species

Disturbance Invasibility Hypothesis

highly disturbed communities more easily invaded.

Increases alpha diversity, decreases beta diversity

Do invasive species increase or decrease biodiversity?

timber rattlesnake

In Maigret et al. (2019), the primary focal species of the study was the:

GIS habitat model/hibernacula

In Maigret et al. (2019), how did they conduct their analysis, and what was the focal habitat component to construct their model?

major challenges to reclaim these sites assuming current reclamation practices continue, homogenization of biodiversity on reclaimed mine sites, would negatively impact the study focal species

The findings and conclusions of Maigret et al. (2019) suggest that mountain top removal surface coal mining practices cause:

sharks, mesopredator hyperabundance

In Myers et al (2007), we see the decline of this particular animal group (answer 1) leading to this ecological phenomenon (answer 2).

placing elasmobranch exclosures (fences) over scallops

In the Myers et al. (2007) paper, to determine a top-down elasmobranch predatory effect vs a more widespread population decline of scallops, researchers used the following method

construction of a dam fragmented the forest

In Terborgh et al. (2001) a unique situation was created to examine trophic cascades and island biogeography. The event that allowed this was: 

large predators

In Terborgh et al. (2001) the trophic group most easily and often first lost to extinction during forest fragmentation events was:

folivores and seed predators were hyperabundant on small islands

In Terborgh et al. (2001) the following was observed:

True

In Terborgh et al. (2001) answer the following as True/False for each statement about the study. 

Tree seedling and sapling density was much lower on the smallest islands

True

In Terborgh et al. (2001) answer the following as True/False for each statement about the study. 

 

Evidence of a top-down trophic cascade was supported in this opportunistic experiment

False

In Terborgh et al. (2001) answer the following as True/False for each statement about the study. 

 

The long-term (decades) trajectory of the tree community on large islands indicates that they will likely have lower alpha diversity than those on small islands.

black bear and panther

In the Davis et al. (2021) paper, the focal (study) species of interest included:

urbanization and sea level rise

In the Davis et al. (2021) paper, models are created to examine future scenarios for the following 2 phenomenon:

future habitat loss for 2 top Florida predators

The Davis et el. (2021) paper concludes: