marxism

marxism

• Marxism is a conflict theory developed by Karl Marx

• It focuses on the economic structure of society, particularly in capitalist systems, which Marxists see as unequal and exploitative

• Unlike consensus theories (e.g., Functionalism), Marxism argues that society is held together not by shared values, but by conflict between social classes over wealth, power, and resources

Social classes under capitalism

• Marx saw capitalism as based on a two-class system:

  • The bourgeoisie

    • These are the ruling class, who own the means of production, i.e., land, factories, and raw materials

    • They control wealth, decision-making, and institutions

  • The proletariat

    • The working class, who own nothing but their labour

    • They sell their labour to the bourgeoisie in exchange for a wage

• According to Marx, this relationship is unequal and exploitative

  • This is because the wages paid to workers are less than the value of what they produce

    • The difference becomes profit for the bourgeoisie

• This creates class conflict because:

  • workers want higher wages and better conditions

  • employers want more profit, which often means keeping wages low

Marx’s base-superstructure model

• Marx argued that the economic system (the base or infrastructure) shapes all other non-economic parts of society (the superstructure), such as education, media, law, religion and ideology

• These institutions help maintain and justify the economic system, creating a society that works in the interests of the ruling class

• Classical or traditional Marxism sees this relationship as largely one-way: the base determines the superstructure

False consciousness & alienation

• The ruling class controls ideology via powerful institutions such as education, religion, and the media

• This shapes how people think and creates false consciousness — where workers accept inequality as natural, fair, or inevitable, rather than recognising it as exploitation

• Workers are alienated because:

  • They have no control over the production process

  • Work is repetitive, meaningless, and for profit—not fulfilment

• Alienation separates workers from their humanity and each other

Examples of ruling class ideology

• 'The poor are dumb' theory of meritocracy

  • Bowles & Gintis (1976): argue the education system promotes the idea that poverty is the result of stupidity or laziness

  • This makes inequality seem like the fault of individuals, rather than the structure of capitalism

• 'Equality is against human nature'

  • Suggests that competition and hierarchy are natural, so attempts to create equality will always fail

• Racist ideologies

  • Promote the supposed inferiority of ethnic minorities

  • This divides black and white workers, preventing unity and making them easier to control under capitalism

Social change and revolution

• Marx believed that the class struggle would eventually lead to social change

  • Wages are suppressed, and working conditions worsen

  • Eventually the working class becomes more aware of their shared oppression (developing class consciousness)

  • They will unite and challenge the capitalist system

  • This would lead to a revolution where the proletariat overthrows the bourgeoisie

  • The result would be communism: a classless and stateless society in which the means of production and wealth are owned collectively and exploitation is abolished

strength of Marxism - provides a basis for social change

• Provides a basis for social change

  • Marxist theory doesn't just describe inequality—it seeks to challenge and change it

  • By exposing exploitation and class conflict, it has inspired social movements and policies aimed at promoting greater equality

weaknesses of Marxism - economic determinism

• Economic determinism

  • Marx’s theory places too much emphasis on the economy as the key force shaping society

  • The base-superstructure model overstates the role of the economy in shaping the superstructure (e.g., law, media, education)

  • Structuralist Marxists like Althusser argue that the superstructure can also influence the base (a more two-way or relative autonomy view)

weaknesses of Marxism - overlooks other inequalities

• Overlooks other inequalities

  • Marx focused almost entirely on class, neglecting other important sources of inequality

  • Feminists argue he failed to address patriarchy and the oppression of women

  • Critics also highlight that racial and ethnic inequalities are overlooked in classical Marxist theory

weaknesses of Marxism - failed predictions

• Failed predictions

  • Marx predicted revolution in advanced capitalist countries, but this has not occurred

  • Countries like the UK and USA remain capitalist with no major working-class uprising

  • Capitalism has proven more adaptable than Marx expected

weaknesses of Marxism - underestimates reform and mobility

• Underestimates reform and mobility

  • Modern societies have introduced reforms that reduce inequality

  • State welfare, minimum wage laws, and educational opportunities have improved life for many

  • This challenges the idea that all workers are uniformly exploited or remain powerless

weaknesses of Marxism - narrow view of power

• Narrow view of power

  • Sociologists like Max Weber argue that status and power (e.g., lifestyle, education, prestige) are just as important as class in shaping inequality

  • Marxism is seen as too one-dimensional, focusing only on economic class