AP Psychology Unit 2 Flashcards

AP Psychology flashcards for units 2.1-2.8

What is perception?

Making sense of sensory information.

What is Bottom-Up Processing?

Relies on sensory input, data-driven, starts with the senses, builds up to understanding, provides raw data.

What is Top-Down Processing?

Relies on expectations and past knowledge, concept-driven, starts with what you know, then interprets sensory info, adds meaning to what bottom-up gives.

What are the steps of Bottom-Up Processing?

Sensory input, feature analysis, integration, perception.

What are the steps of Top-Down Processing?

Prior knowledge, form a hypothesis, match sensory input, perception.

What is Closure (Gestalt Principle)?

Brain fills in gaps to complete a whole object.

What is Proximity (Gestalt Principle)?

Items close together are grouped together.

What is Figure & Ground (Gestalt Principle)?

We separate objects (figure) from the background (ground).

What is Similarity (Gestalt Principle)?

Similar items are grouped together.

What is Attention?

Focused mental resources on specific stimuli.

What is Selective Attention?

Focus on what we find important; ignore the rest.

What is the Cocktail Party Effect?

Hear one voice in a noisy space, but still notice things like your name from elsewhere.

What is Inattentional Blindness?

Missing something in plain sight because attention is elsewhere.

What is Change Blindness?

Not noticing changes in a visual scene.

What is Retinal Disparity?

Closer = bigger difference between eyes.

What is Convergence?

Closer = more eye muscle tension.

What is Relative Clarity?

Closer = clearer.

What is Relative Size?

Closer = bigger.

What is Texture Gradient?

Further = smoother.

What is Linear Perspective?

Lines appear to meet in distance.

What is Interposition?

One object blocks another = it's closer.

What is Size Constancy?

Object stays same size even if it looks bigger/smaller.

What is Color Constancy?

Color stays constant despite lighting.

What is Brightness Constancy?

Object seems equally bright despite light changes.

What is Shape Constancy?

Shape stays the same even from different angles.

What is Phi Phenomenon?

Lights flashing in sequence = movement illusion.

What is Stroboscopic Movement?

Fast images = illusion of motion (e.g., movies).

What is a Concept?

Mental grouping based on shared traits.

What is a Prototype?

Most typical example of a concept.

What is a Superordinate concept (example)?

Fruit.

What is a Basic concept (example)?

Apple.

What is a Subordinate concept (example)?

Green Apple.

What is a Concrete (Formal) concept?

Has rules.

What is a Natural (Abstract) concept?

Everyday experience.

What are Schemas?

Mental frameworks that organize info.

What is Assimilation?

Fit new info into existing schema.

What is Accommodation?

Change schema for new info.

What are the three parts of Beck's Cognitive Triad (Depression)?

Negative view of self, negative view of world, negative view of future.

What is an Algorithm?

Tries all possible solutions (accurate but slow).

What is a Heuristic?

Quick mental shortcut (fast but error-prone).

What is Gambler's Fallacy?

Past chance events affect future ones.

What is Sunk Cost Fallacy?

Stick to bad decisions because of past investment.

What are Executive Functions?

Planning, organizing, goal-setting, problem-solving.

What is Functional Fixedness?

Stuck seeing things only in usual way.

What type of memory is stored in the Cerebellum?

Muscle memory.

What type of memory is processed by the Hippocampus?

Temporal/explicit memory.

What type of memory is stored in the Cerebral Cortex?

General memory storage.

What is Explicit (Declarative) memory?

Requires effort to recall.

What is Implicit (Non-Declarative) memory?

Automatic, unconscious.

What is Episodic memory?

Personal experiences.

What is Semantic memory?

General knowledge.

What is Prospective memory?

Plans for the future.

What is Procedural memory?

Skills.

What is Classical Conditioning memory?

Triggered responses.

What is Priming memory?

Memory linked to stimuli.

What is the Atkinson & Shiffrin: Multi-store memory model?

Sensory → STM → LTM.

What does the Baddeley & Hitch: Working memory model focus on?

Focuses on STM.

What is the duration of Sensory Memory?

0.5–2 seconds.

What is the capacity of Sensory Memory?

Large capacity.

What is the duration of Short-Term Memory (STM)?

15–30 seconds.

What is the capacity of Short-Term Memory (STM)?

5–9 items.

What is the duration of Long-Term Memory (LTM)?

Potentially forever.

What is the capacity of Long-Term Memory (LTM)?

Unlimited.

What is the encoding of Long-Term Memory (LTM)?

Based on meaning.

What is Effortful Processing?

Actively working to move info into LTM.

What are Mnemonic Devices?

Memory aids like: Method of Loci, Rhymes, Acronyms.

What type of memory is processed by the Hippocampus?

Explicit Memory; Damage = Anterograde amnesia (can’t form new memories).

What is the role of the Cerebral Cortex in memory?

Retrieval; Damage = Retrograde amnesia (can’t remember old memories).

What is Confirmation Bias?

We recall memories that support current beliefs.

What is Hindsight Bias?

Rewriting memories based on how things turned out.

What is Overconfidence in memory?

Believing our memory is 100% accurate.

What is Mood Congruence?

Emotions affect what we remember.

What is Context-Dependent Memory?

Same setting helps recall.

What is State-Dependent Memory?

Same physical/emotional state helps recall.

What are Retrieval Strategies?

Retrieval practice, testing effect, metacognition, incubation (taking a break).

What is Social Forgetting?

Wrong setting = memory can't be triggered.

What is Cognitive Forgetting?

Memories become mixed or disorganized.

What is Humanistic Forgetting?

No bad memory, just barriers.

What is Behavioral Forgetting?

Association between stimuli is lost.

What is Psychogenic Forgetting?

Psychological cause, no brain damage.

What is Infantile Amnesia?

Can't recall before age 5.

What is Source Amnesia?

Forget where you learned something.

What is Retroactive Interference?

New info interferes with old.

What is Proactive Interference?

Old info interferes with new.

What is Memory Reconstruction?

We rebuild memories each time we recall them.

What is Memory Confabulation?

Blending inaccurate details with real memories.

Why is Eyewitness Testimony unreliable?

Can be unreliable due to memory reconstruction and confabulation.

What are False Memories?

Can be implanted through suggestion or confusion.

Who is Alfred Binet?

First to test mental abilities.

Who is Lewis Terman?

Standardized Binet’s test; IQ = mental age ÷ chronological age × 100.

Who is Charles Spearman?

Believed in g factor (general intelligence).

How do Individualistic Cultures view intelligence?

Value independence; Success = personal achievement; Intelligence = personal ability.

How do Collectivist Cultures view intelligence?

Value group harmony; Success = group improvement; Intelligence = working well with others.