changing family patterns

describe divorce patterns

· Since the 1960s the number of divorces has doubled between the 1961-69 and doubling again in 1972 with an upward trend continuing with a peak of 165000 divorces in 1993.

· Numbers have fallen since then but remain high at 118000 in 2012 meaning 40% of all marriages will end in divorce.

One reason for the fall in divorces is that since 1990s fewer people are marrying and are cohabiting instead

factors affecting divorce rate

changes in law

declining stigma

secularisation

rising expectation

women increased financial independnace

describe changes in law that affected divorce rates

· Divorce was difficult to obtain in the 19th century especially for women. Gradually changes have been made to make divorce easier.

§ Such as equalising the grounds for divorce between sexes.

§ Widening the grounds for divorce

§ Making divorce cheaper

When the grounds for divorce were equalised for men and women in 1923 this was followed by a sharp rise in the number if divorce petitions from women. The widening of the grounds in 1971 made divorce easier to obtain and produced a doubling of the divorce rate overnight. The intro of legal aid for divorce cases in 1949 lowered costs of divorcing. Divorce rates have risen with each change in the law.

describe declining stigma

· Stigma refers to the negative label attached to a person. In the past divorce and divorcees have been stigmatised. Mitchell and Goody note that an important change since the 1960s has been the rapid decline in the stigma attached to divorce.

· As stigma declines and divorce becomes socially acceptable, couples become more willing to resort to divorce as a means of solving their marital problems.

· The fact that divorce is now more normalised it reduces the stigma attached to it.

describe secularisation

· Secularisation refers to the decline in the influence of religion in society. Many sociologists argue that religious institutions are losing their influence and society is becoming more secular. Such as church attendance rates continue to decline.

· As a result, the traditional opposition of the churched to divorce carries less weight in society and people are less likely to be influenced by religious teachings when making decisions about personal matters.

Also, many churches have also begun to soften their views on divorce and divorcees perhaps because they fear losing credibility with large sections of the public and with their own members

describe rising expectations of marriage

· rising expectations of marriage as a contributing factor to higher divorce rates. Functionalist sociologists, such as Ronald Fletcher (1966), argue that modern society places greater emphasis on romantic love and personal fulfilment within marriage. The dominant ideology of romantic love promotes the belief that marriage should be based on an idealized, fulfilling partnership with one's "perfect" partner or "Mr./Mrs. Right." When marriages fail to meet these high expectations, individuals are less willing to tolerate dissatisfaction, leading to a higher likelihood of divorce.

This marks a shift from the past when marriage was often less about personal happiness and more about duty, economic reasons, or fulfilling social expectations. In modern times, marriage is increasingly viewed not as a permanent, binding contract, but as a relationship in which individuals seek emotional and personal satisfaction. As Graham Allan and Graham Crow (2001) explain, "love, personal commitment, and intrinsic satisfaction" are now seen as central to marriage, and the absence of these elements is often viewed as sufficient justification for divorce.

what do functionalists suggest about marriage

· While high divorce rates suggest dissatisfaction with specific marriages, functionalists like Fletcher remain optimistic about the institution of marriage itself. They point to the continuing popularity of marriage, as evidenced by the high rates of remarriage following divorce. This, they argue, shows that although people may be dissatisfied with their marital partners, they have not rejected the idea of marriage as an institution.

how do feminists critique challenge the functionalist view of marriage

· However, feminist critics challenge this view, arguing that it overlooks the persistent oppression of women within the institution of marriage. They contend that the romanticized view of marriage promoted by functionalists fails to acknowledge why it is mainly women rather than men who seek divorce

. although most adults do marry, marriage rates have fallen in the past 50 years.

describe women's increased financial independence

· Their improvements in their economic position have made them less financially dependant on their husband and therefore freer to end their unsatisfactory marriage.

· Women today are much more likely to be part of paid work. from 53% in 1971 to 67% in 2013.

· Although women generally still earn less than men, equal pay and anti-discrimination laws have helped reduce the gap.

· Girls' greater success in education now help them achieve better paid jobs than previous generations.

· The availability of welfare benefits mean that women are less financially dependent on their husbands.

· Allan and crow say that "marriage is less embedded within the economic system now". There are fewer family firms and the family is no longer a unit of production so spouses are not so dependent on each other economically.

· Women also now have their own separate source of income from paid work so do not have to tolerate unsatisfactory marriages.

feminist explanation for divorce- what does Hochschild and Rushton suggest

Feminist explanations for divorce argue that women experience a dual burden of paid work and domestic labour, leading to conflict within marriages and contributing to a higher divorce rate. Some feminists extend this argument to a triple shift, which includes emotion work.

Hochschild (1997) suggests that men's continued resistance to housework creates frustration for women, making marriages less stable. Additionally, as both partners work, there is less time for emotion work, which may further strain relationships.

Sigle-Rushton (2007) found that mothers with a dual burden are more likely to divorce than non-working mothers in traditional marriages. However, if husbands actively contribute to housework, the divorce rate is similar to traditional families.

how do Cooke and Gash and Bernard contrast Hochschild and Rushton's view

In contrast, Cooke and Gash (2010) found no evidence that working women are more likely to divorce, arguing that female employment is now an accepted norm.

Radical feminist Jessie Bernard (1976) sees women's dissatisfaction with patriarchal marriage as a key reason for rising divorce rates, highlighting that most divorce petitions are filed by women.

describe modernity and individualization- Beck and Giddens

· Beck and Giddens argue that in a modern society, traditional norms such as the duty to remain with the same partner lose their hold over individuals. As a result each individual becomes free to pursue their own self-interests- individualisation thesis.

· Relationships thus become more fragile as individuals become unwilling to stay with the same partner if the relationship lacks fulfilment.

· They instead seek what Giddens calls the "pure relationship"- one that exists solely to satisfy each partner's needs and not out of sense of duty, tradition or children. This results in higher divorce rates.

· The rising divorce rate normalises divorce and strengthens the belief that marriage exists solely to provide personal fulfilment.

· Modern society also encourages individualism in other ways such as to pursue your own career path. This can cause conflict of interest between spouses and cause marital breakdown.

· Some spouses argue that modernity encourages people to adopt a neoliberal, consumerist identity based on the idea of freedom to follow oneself interest. This pursuit of self interest is likely to pull spouses apart.

how does the new right see high divorce rate

The new right see a high divorce rate as undesirable as it undermines marriage and the traditional nuclear family which they regard as vital to social stability

In their view a high divorce rate creates a growing underclass or welfare dependant female lone parents who are a burden on the state and leaves boys without a male adult role model. It results in poorer health and educational outcomes for children

how do feminists see a high divorce rate

Feminists- high divorce rate as desirable as it shows women are breaking free from oppression of the patriarchal nuclear family.

how do post modernists and the individualisation thesis see a high divorce rate

Postmodernists and the individualisation thesis- see a high divorce rate as showing that individuals now have the freedom to choose to end a relationship when it no longer meets their needs. They see it as a major cause of greater family diversity.

how do functionalists see a high divorce rate

Functionalist- argue that a high divorce rate is not necessarily a threat to a marriage as a social institution. It is simply the result of people's higher expectations of marriage today. The high rate of remarriage shows people's continuing commitment to the idea of marriage

how do interactionalists see a high divorce rate

Interactionists- aim to understand what divorce means to the individual. Morgan argues that we cannot generalise about the meaning of divorce as every individual's interpretation of it is different

how does the PLP see high divorce rate

The personal life perspective- accepts that divorce can cause problems such as financial difficulties and lack of daily contact between children and non resident parents

what does smart argue about divorce

But Smart argues that divorce has become normalised and that family life can adapt to it without disintegrating. We should see divorce as just one transition amongst others in the life course

describe patterns in marriage

There have been a number of important changes in the pattern of marriage

Fewer people are marrying: marriage rates are at their lowest since the 1920s. In 2012, there were 175000 first marriages for both parents- less than half the number for 1970

There are more remarriages. In 2012 one third of all marriages were remarriages for one or both partners. This may lead to serial monogamy: a pattern of marriage-divorce- remarriage

People are marrying later: the average age of first marriage rose by 7 years between 1971-2012 when it stood at 32 years for men and 30 for women.

reasons for chnaging patterns of marriage- similar to divorce reasons

First marriages- similar to reasons for the increase in divorce. They include:

Changing attitudes to marriage- There is less pressure to marry and more freedom for individuals to choose the type of relationship they want. There is a widespread belief that the quality of the relationship is more important than its legal status.

Secularisation- they churches are in favour of marriage, but as their influence declines people feel freer to choose not to marry. 2001 census only 3% of young people with no religion were married. As opposed to 17% of those with a religion

Declining stigma attached to alternatives to marriage- cohabitation, remaining single and having children outside marriage are all now widely accepted, so pregnancy should no longer lead to a spontaneous marriage. 1989- 70% believed that couples who want children should get married but in 2012 only 42% thought so

Changes in the position of women- with better educational and career propsects, many women are now less economically dependent on men which gives them greater freedom to not marry. The feminist view on marriage may also dissuade women from marrying

reasons for changing patterns of marriage- other reasosn

Fear of divorce- with the rising divorce rate some may be put off marrying as they see the increased likelihood of marriage ending in divorce

Remarriages- the main reason for the increase in remarriages is the rise in the number of divorces. The 2 have grown together so that the rising number of divorcees provides a supply of people available to re marry

Age on marrying- the age at which couples marry is rising as young people are postponing marriage in order to spend longer in full time education and establish careers. Also cohabiting it more common

Church weddings- couples nowadays are less likely to marry in church for reasons such as secularisation and many churches refuse to marry divorcees.

describe cohabitation patterns

Cohabiting couples with children are a fast growing family type

There are 2.9 million cohabiting heterosexuals couples in Britain. About 1 in 8 adults are now cohabiting- double the number in 1996

There are an estimated 69000 same sex cohabiting couples

reasons for the increase in cohabitation

The young are more likely to accept cohabitation

Secularisation- young people with no religion are more likely to cohabit than those with a religion

Increased career opportunities for women may mean they have less need for the financial security of marriage and are freer to opt for cohabitation

Decline in stigma attached to sex outside of marriage. In 1989 44% of people agreed premarital sex is not wrong. But 65% took this view by 2012

relationship between cohabitation and marraige

· Although cohabitation is increasing and marriage is decreasing the relationship is not certain. For some couples, cohabitation is the step before marriage whereas for thers it is permanent.

· Chester argues that for most people, cohabitation is part of the process of getting married. - 75% of cohabitating couples expect to marry each other.

describe trial marriage

· Many see cohabitation as a trial marriage and intend to marry if it goes well and eventually have children. In some cases cohabitation is a temporary phase before marriage as one or both partners are awaiting divorce.

· On the other hand, some couples see cohabitation as a permanent alternative to marriage. Bejin argues that cohabitation among some young people represents a conscious attempt to create a more personally negotiated and equal relationship than conventional patriarchal marriage.

· The term covers a diverse range of partnerships and the relationship between marriage and cohabitation is complex.

describe same sex relationships

· Stonewall estimates that 5-7% of the adult population have same sex relationships. It is impossible to judge the rate as the stigma and illegality of it before meant it was likely to be hidden.

· There is evidence of increased social acceptance of same sex relationships.

· Male homosexual acts were decriminalised in 1967 for consenting adults over 21 and more recently the age if consent was equalised with heterosexuals.

· Social policy now treats all couples more equally eg since 2004 civil partnership act gave same sex couples similar legal rights to married couples in respect of pensions, inheritances properties etc.

describe chosen famillies

v· "chosen families" among same-sex couples.

· Jeffrey Weeks (1999) argues that increased social acceptance has led to a trend of same-sex cohabitation and stable relationships similar to those of heterosexuals.

· He describes how gays create families based on "friendship as kinship," forming secure and stable networks as much as heterosexual families.

· Similarly, Kath Weston (1992) describes same sex cohabitation as "quasi marriage"- many gay couples now choose to cohabit as stable partnerships, contrasting with the casual relationships of the 1970s which largely rejected monogamy.

· Other sociologists, like Allan and Crow, highlight how the absence of legal frameworks such as civil partnerships historically made same-sex relationships negotiate their commitment and responsibilities more than married couples this makes same sex relationships more flexible but less stable.

· Anna Einarsdottir (2011) adds that while some welcome legal recognition, others fear it may restrict the flexibility of same-sex relationships.

describe one person households

Fewer people today are living in couples.

· By 2033, 0ver 30% of the adult population will be single.

· Rise in the number of people living alone. 2013- almost 3 in 10 households (7.7 million people) contained only one person- nearly 3 times the figure for 1961

· 40% of all one person households are over 65, Pensioner one person households have doubled since 1961, while those of non- pensioners tripled. Men under 65 were the group most likely to live alone.

reason for these changes

· Increase in separation and divorce has created more one person households, especially among men under 65. this is because following divorce, any children are more likely to live with their mother; their father is more likely to leave the family home.

· Decline in the numbers marrying and the trend towards marrying later, also mean more people are remaining single.

· The proportions of adults who are single has risen by half since 1971. Many of these are living alone. It is possible that a growing number are opting for deliberate choice to live alone.

· While many of these choose to remain single and live alone, some are alone as there are too few partners available in their age group. These are mainly older widows.

describe living apart together

· Research from Duncan and Phillips found that about 1 in 10 adults are "living apart together"- in a significant relationship but not married or cohabiting. This is about as half of all people officially classified as single. This may reflect a trend towards less formalised relationships and "families of choice"

· Duncan and Phillips found that both choice and constraint play a part in whether couples live together. For example, some said they could not afford to. However, a minority actively chose to live apart. This may be due to wanting to keep their own home due to previous troubled relationships or because it was "too early" to cohabit.

· Public attitudes to LATs are favourable. A majority believe that "a couple do not need to live together to have a strong relationship" while 20% see LATs as their "ideal relationships"

Duncan and Phillips conclude that while being a LAT is no longer abnormal, it probably does not amount to a rejection of more traditional relationships

describe child bearing

· 47% of all children are now born outside marriage: over twice as many as in 1986 but nearly all these births are jointly registered by both parents. In most cases, the parents are cohabiting.

· More women are remaining childless: it is predicted that a quarter of those born in 1973 will be childless when they reach the age of 45.

· Women are having children later: between 1971 and 2012, their average age at the birth of their first child rose by 4 years to 28.1 years.

Women are having fewer children than in the 20th century though the number increased slightly in the early 21st century

reasons for the changes in patterns of childbearing

· Increase in births outside of marriage include a decline in stigma and increase in cohabitation. For example, only 28% of 25-34-year-olds now think marriage should come before parenthood.

· The later age at which women are having children, smaller family sizes and the fact that more women are remaining childless all reflect that women now have more options than just motherhood. Many are seeking to establish themselves in a career before starting a family, or instead of having children at all.

describe lone parent famillies patterns

· Lone parent families now make up 22% of all families with children. 1 in 4 children live in lone parent families.

· Over 90% of these families are headed by lone mothers.

· Until the 1990s divorced women were the biggest group of lone mothers. From the early 1990s single women became the biggest group of lone mothers.

· A child living with a lone parent is twice as likely to be in poverty as a child living with 2 parents.

reason for the lone parent family patterns

· The number of lone parent families has risen due to the increase in divorce and separation but also due to the increase in single women having children.

· This is linked to the decline in stigma attached to births outside marriage. In the past death of one parent was a common cause of lone parent families but this is no longer significant.

· Lone parent families tend to be female headed for reasons such as

1. The widespread belief that women are by nature suited to an expressive or nurturing role

2. The fact that divorce courts usually give custody of children to mothers.

3. The fact that men may be less willing than women to give up work to care for children.

describe single by choice

· Many lone parent families are female headed as mothers are single by choice. They may not wish to cohabit or marry, or they may wish to limit the father's involvement with the child.

· Renvoize found that professional women were able to support their child without the father's involvement

· Cashmore found some w/c mothers with less earning power chose to live on welfare benefits without a partner, often as they had experienced abuse.

Feminist's ideas and greater opportunities for women may have also encouraged an increase in the number of never married lone mothers.

describe murray and the perverse incentive and welfare state

· The new right sociologist Charles Murray sees the growth of lone parent families as resulting from an over generous welfare state providing benefits for unmarried mothers and their children.

· Murray argues that this has created a "perverse incentive". - rewarding irresponsible behaviour such as having children without being able to provide for them. The welfare state creates a "dependency culture" in which people assume that the state will report them and their children.

For Murray the solution is to abolish welfare benefits. This would reduce the dependency culture that encourages birth outside marriage

what do critics of Murray's view state

· But critics of the new right argue that welfare benefits are far from generous and lone parent families are much more likely to be in poverty. Reasons for this include:

1. Lack of affordable childcare prevents lone parents from working: 60% of them are unemployed. This is twice as high as among mothers with partners.

2. Inadequate welfare benefits

3. Most lone parents are women, who generally earn less than men.

4. Failure of fathers to pay maintenance, especially if they have formed a second family that they have to support.

describe step famillies patterns

· Reconstituted families account for over 10% of all families with dependent children in Britain.

· In 85% of stepfamilies at least one child is from the previous relationship, while in 11% there is at least one child from the man's previous relationship in 4% of stepfamilies there are children from both partners' previous relationships.

Ferri and Smtih found that stepfamilies are a greater risk of poverty

reasons for the patterns in step famillies

· Stepfamilies are formed when lone parents form new partnerships. Thus, the factors causing an increase in the number of lone parents such as divorce and stepfamilies.

· Most children in stepfamilies are from the woman's previous relationships than the man's as when marriages and cohabitations break up children are more likely to remain with their mother

· Stepparents are at greater risk of poverty as there are often more children as the stepfather may also have to support children from a previous relationship.

· Some of the tension faced by stepfamilies may be the result of a lack of social norms about how individuals should behave in such families.

describe family patterns in black famillies

· Black Caribbean and black African people have a higher proportion of lone parent households.

· In 2012, just over half of families with dependant children headed by a black person were lone parent families.

· This compared with only one in nine Asian families and just under a quarter for the population as a whole.

· The high rate of female headed; lone parent black families can more recently be linked to high rates of unemployment among black males.

· Under slavery, when couples were sold separately, children stayed with the mother. It is argued that this established a pattern of family life that persists today.

· It is also argued that male unemployment and poverty have meant that black men are less able to provide for their family, resulting in higher rates of desertion or marital breakdown.

· Mirza argues that the higher rate of lone parent families among blacks is not the result of disorganisation but rather reflects the high value women place on independence

Reynolds argues that stats are misleading in that many "lone" parents are in fact stable, supportive but non cohabiting relationships

what did the 2011 census show in britain

· Immigration in Britain since 1950s has helped to create greater ethnic diversity. 2011 census show that 86% of the UK population were white.

describe family patterns in asian famillies

· Such households sometimes contain 3 generations but most are nuclear than extended. Larger household sizes are partly as result of the younger age profile of British Asian since a higher proportion are in childbearing age groups compared with the population as a whole.

· Larger Asian households also reflect value placed on the extended family in Asian cultures. but the practical consideration such as the need for assistance when migrating to Britain are also significant.

· Ballard found that extended family ties provided an important source of support among Asian migrants during the 1950s and 1960s.

· In this period of migration, houses were often shared by extended families.

· Later, although most Asian households were now nuclear, relatives often lived nearby.

· There was frequent visiting, and kinship networks continued to be a source of support.

· Today Sikhs, Muslims and Hindus are still more likely than other ethnic or religious groups to live in extended family units.

which households tend to be larger

Bangladeshi, Pakistani and Indian households tend to be larger than those of other ethnic groups at 4.4, 4.3, and 3 persons per household compared with 2.4 for both black Caribbean and white British households

describe the extended family today

According to functionalists like Parsons:

· Extended family was dominant in pre-industrial society.

· Replaced by the nuclear family in modern industrial society.

Nickie Charles (2008) study:

· Three-generation extended family under one roof is "all but extinct" in Swansea.

· Exception: More common among the Bangladeshi community.

Peter Willmott (1988) argument:

· Extended family persists as a "dispersed extended family."

· Relatives are geographically separated but maintain frequent contact through visits and phone calls.

Mary Chamberlain (1999) study of Caribbean families in Britain:

· Despite geographical dispersion, they provide support.

· Described as "multiple nuclear families" with close, frequent contact between relatives.

· Relatives often contribute significantly to childcare.

· Chamberlain suggests the extended family survives as it performs important functions for its members.

describe Bell's study of the extended family today

Bell's research:

· Both w/c and m/c families had emotional bonds with kin and relied on them for support:

§ Among the middle class, there was more financial help from father to son

§ w/c families had more frequent contact (they lived closer) and there was more domestic help from mothers to daughters.

describe the beanpole family

· Bell's findings suggest the importance of a beanpole family.

· A beanpole family is a type of extended family which Brannen describes as "long and thin"

· It is extended vertically through 3 or more generations: grandparents, parents and children.

· It is not extended horizontally- it doesn't involve aunts, uncles, cousins etc

· Charles found the same high level of contact between mothers and adult daughters that Bell had found in the 1960s. but in the case of brothers and sisters, there had been a sharp decline in both support and contact. This suggests a "beanpole" structure.

Beanpole families may partly be due to 2 demographic changes: increased life expectancy means more surviving grandparents and great grandparents and smaller family sizes mean people have fewer siblings and thus fewer horizontal ties.

describe obligation to relatives

· Despite the rise in beanpole families many people still feel a sense of obligation to help their wider extended kin.

· Finch and Mason found that over 90% of people had given or received financial help and about half had cared for a sick relative. They also found that more is to be expected of females than males.

· Cheal argues that when it comes to help with household tasks: "a systematic set of rules exist for deciding who has greater obligation to assist."

· Cheal notes that when personal care is needed for an elederly woman, a daughter or daughter in law is preferred if the husband is not available.

· Sons are rarely chosen as caregivers for an elderly women. On the other hand daughters are rarely chosen as appropriate people to provide money.

what did mason find about obligation to relatives

· But not all daughters in a family play an equal part.

· Mason found much depends on the history of the relationship, the particular obligations women feel towards their relatives and what other responsibilities they have that would give them "legitimate excuses" not to be involved.

· Finch and Mason found that principle of reciprocity or balance is also important- people felt that help received should be returned to avoid any feelings of indebtedness.

· Overall evidence suggests that the extended family continues to play an important role in society for both practical and emotional support.

· This is different from Parsons' classic extended family whose members lived and worked together and who were bound by strong mutual obligations.

Nevertheless some sense of obligation does reman at least to some kin and as a last resort in times of crisis