Edexcel GCE Politics: UK democracy and participation

Legitimacy

A government's legal or moral right to rule.

Representative democracy

A system in which voters vote to elect representatives to make political decisions on their behalf.

Surgeries

Regular sessions where MPs meet with their constituents to hear their issues and concerns.

Burkean representation (trustee model)

Bristol MP and conservative thinker Edmund Burke argued that the role of MPs is not just to follow their constituents' wishes, but to act according to their own conscience.

Direct democracy

A system in which voters make decisions directly on laws, policies and other matters, rather than relying on representatives to make those decisions.

Recall of MP Act 2015

If an MP has been imprisoned or suspended during their time in the House of Commons, a by-election can be triggered through a petition signed by 10% of constituents.

Consultative exercises

Governing bodies can set these up to determine the likely public reaction to their proposed policies, and adjust or cancel them accordingly.

The 2016 EU membership referendum

A nationwide referendum on UK's membership in the European Union.

Leave: 51.9%

Remain: 48.1%

Turnout: 72.2%

'Hard' Brexit

After leaving the EU, the UK stops being a member of European single market and customs union. The UK also gets full control over legislation and immigration.

'Soft' Brexit

After leaving the EU, the UK retains some membership of the EU single market and customs unions. There is also a free movement of people.

2014 Scottish Independence referendum

Scotland voted on whether or not to stay a part of the UK.

No: 55.3%

Yes: 44.7%

Turnout: 84.6%

'Revoke Article 50' e-petition

6.1 million people signed a petition to prevent the UK's exit of the EU following the 2016 EU membership referendum.

The 2011 Alternate Vote referendum

A nationwide referendum on whether to retain First-past-the-post as the electoral system used in parliamentary elections or switch to an alternate voting system.

No: 67.9%

Yes: 32.1%

Turnout: 42.2%

Education level of MPs vs public

23% of MPs are privately educated, compared to 7% of the general population.

90% of MPs of MPs attended university, compared to 20% of those working age.

Participation crisis

A significant proportion of the general population is not engaging with the political process.

Voter turnout in the 21st century

Average voter turnout in general elections has declined relative to the average throughout the 20th century.

The turnout of the 2024 general election was the lowest since 2001.

Turnout among DE class voters

In 2019, only 53% of DE voters voted.

Party membership decline

Conservative membership has declined from 2.8 million in 1953 to 200,000 in 2021.

Labour membership has declined from over a million to 400,000. It spiked under Corbyn has declined since Starmer became leader.

Democratic deficit

A flaw in the democratic process where decisions are taken by people who lack legitimacy, owing to a lack of democratic input or accountability.

People's referendums

A referendum triggered by a certain proportion of voters or by any major constitutional change.

2018 Irish abortion referendum

A vote on whether to amend the constitution to allow abortion.

A policy paper was produced by the government and a 'deliberate assembly was held.

Yes: 66.4%

No: 33.6%

Turnout: 64.1%

Compulsory voting in Australia

Turnout is typically 90% or higher in federal elections.

Votes for prisoners

The issues was debated in Parliament, but was rejected by a cross-party consensus (234-22). This was in 2011.

In Scotland, prisoners serving sentences under 12 months can vote in parliamentary and local elections.

Great Reform Act 1832

• Abolished separate representation for the smallest 'rotten boroughs'

• Created seats for growing urban areas such as Manchester

• Granted the vote to new groups in counties like tenant farmers

• Expanded the franchise to the male middle class in the boroughs

It also formally excluded women from voting in parliamentary elections, as a voter was defined in the Act as a male person.

Representation of the People Act 1918

• Gave women over the age of 30 who met a property qualification the right to vote. This means two-thirds of women could vote.

• Abolished property and other restrictions for men, and extended the vote to virtually all men over the age of 21.

• The electorate nearly tripled from eight to 21 million as a result.

Equal Franchise Act 1928

• Women over 21 were given the right to vote and women achieved the same voting rights as men.

• This act increased the number eligible to vote to 15 million.

Pressure groups

Groups that attempts to influence public policy in the interest of a particular cause but does not seek office.

Sectional groups

Groups that promote the interests of an occupation or a particular group which the members belong to; membership is restricted by requirements.

Examples include:

The National Education Union (NEU) which is the largest teachers' union, representing teachers legally and campaigning for better pay and conditions.

Cause groups

Structured organisations promoting a particular goal or highlighting certain issues; membership is not restricted to those affected.

Examples include:

Amnesty International which is a charitable organisation campaigning to ensure that all humans enjoy the rights set out in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

Social movements

A group or groups with no clear structure or leadership promoting a particular cause; membership is open to anyone; they are usually radical.

Examples include:

Black Lives Matter (BLM) which was several groups protesting issues related to racism such as police brutality.

Insider groups

• Rely on contact with ministers and civil servants

• Tend to broadly agree with the government

• Usually work behind the scenes

• May be consulted on draft laws and in committees

Examples include:

The National Union of Farmers (NUF) has close links with the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs.

Outsider groups

• Have no direct contact with the government

• Tend to hold more radical views

• Engage in publicity stunts to gain attention

• May carry out direct action or legal challenges

Examples include:

Just Stop Oil has blocked traffic and interrupted sports events; the Countryside Alliance challenged the hunting ban in the High Court.

Factors in the success of pressure groups

Resources: the employees, money, facilities, etc. the group has at its disposal

Ideology: how politically aligned the group is with the government

Popularity: the extent of the group's public support

Expertise: the group's tactics and experience in mobilising support

Resources: the influence of the British Medical Association (BMA)

The BMA has a large membership of approximately 190,000 doctors and extensive expertise. They exchange this for influence over the pay of contorts, their working condition and public health policies such as the smoking ban.

Ideology: the influence of the Confederation of Business Interests (CBI) and the Countryside Alliance

The CBI has more influence under Conservative governments because it is ideologically aligned with the government.

The Countryside Alliance represents rural interest and had close contacts with many Conservative MPs. They influenced Cameron to have a free vote on the fox hunting ban, and lobbying for favourable conditions for farmers post-Brexit.

Popularity: the influence of BLM

The BLM protests in 2020 garnered thousands of supporters, and led the government to establish a commission to investigate racial inequality.

Expertise

Think tanks

Groups of experts brought together to investigate and offer solutions to political issues, usually with the aim of influencing policy in a certain ideological direction.

Think thank methods

• Releasing research and policy papers:

The Institute for Fiscal Studies releases its yearly 'Green Budget' to reduce public debt, which has been cited by government officials

• Host public events:

The Adam Smith Institute used to hold bleat parties for young people working in Westminster

• Media engagement:

Kate Andrew's of the Institute of Economic Affairs regularly appears n the BBC Show 'Question Time'

• Collaborate directly with political parties:

Labour Together worked directly with the Labour Party before the election on polling and policy recommendations.

55 Tufton Street

This Westminster address is host to several right-wing think tanks, including the IEA, ASI, the Taxpayers' Alliance, and the Global Warming Policy Foundation; they have been criticised for a lack of funding transparency and ties to oil and tobacco companies.

The Fabian Society

A moderate socialist think tank founded in 1884.

• Has close ties with the Labour Party, with former and current members including many prominent Labour politicians and Prime Ministers.

• Influential during the Blair/New Labour era with the reform of Clause IV and Bank of England independence, and it has regained influence under Keir Starmer's leadership.

The Institute of Economic Affairs (IEA)

The Institute of Economic Affairs is free market think tank founded in 1945.

• Has advocated for policies such as privatisation, tax cuts, and lower government spending.

• Great influence during the Thatcher government and also had strong ties with Liz Truss and her Cabinet.

• Criticised for its lack of transparency about its funding and its ties to tobacco and oil companies.

Lobbying

Lawful methods to influence policy-making, usually through face-to-face meetings with politicians.

Lobbyists

• Ordinary members of the public

• Representatives of pressure groups

• Representatives of businesses and corporations

• Professional lobbyists employed by a pressure group or corporation

The 'revolving door'

The movement of high-level government officials to the private sector, working as lobbyists and consultants. It also describes lobbyists becoming government officials.

Examples of the ‘revolving’ door

• Between 2017 and 2022, 29% of the new roles accepted by ex-ministers and officials involved work directly related to areas they used to regulate.

• Former Deputy Prime Minister and Liberal Democrat Nick Clegg was employed by Meta (Facebook) to employ his insider knowledge of politics in dealings with governments.

Gas lobbyists and the North Sea oil licences

In 2023, the UK government met frequently with oil and gas lobbyists (at least 343 times), which coincided with approvals for new North Sea oil licences.

Lobbying in the gin industry

Lobbyists for the gin industry worked to overturn the Gin Act 1751, which banned small-scale production of gin; in 2008, they were successful, leading to the growth of boutique gin as a major UK export.

Civil rights

Freedoms and entitlements possessed by all citizens, protecting them from the state and other citizens, and meeting certain basic needs.

Examples include:

• The right to a fair trial (due process)

Individual rights

Freedoms that can be exercised by a particular person.

Examples include:

• The freedom of speech

• The freedom to marry

Collective rights

Freedoms that exercised by a group or the whole of society.

Examples include:

• The right to be free from violence

• The right to national self-government

Location of rights

• In various landmark constitutional documents

• Acts of Parliament

• Judges' rulings in common law cases, setting a precedent for future cases

Magna Carta (1215)

The law should be impartial and free men have a right to a trial before being convicted of a crime (habeas corpus).

Bill of Rights (1689)

The monarch governs with the consent of Parliament.

Entick v Carrington (1765)

The government can only exercise power if it is authorised specifically by the law.

Somerset v Stewart (1772)

Slaves could not be held within Britain as it had not been legislated for by Parliament or common law; ‘It is so odious, that nothing can be suffered to support it, but positive law’.

R v R (1991)

Marital rape is a crime under common law in the UK.

‘Rights-based culture’

The growing tendency since Blair for rights to be based less on common law and constitutional convention, and more on codified legislation.

It is also sometimes used as a criticism of a recent cultural emphasis on rights over responsibilities.

Human Rights Act 1998

The UK helped to draft the European Convention on Human Rights in 1950, but it wasn’t enshrined in UK law. In 1998, Labour passed the Human Rights Act (HRA), which incorporated the ECHR fully into British law.

Shamima Begum and the HRA

The Court of Appeal ruled that Shamima Begum, who left the UK at 15 to join ISIS, should be allowed to return to the UK to participate in the case over her citizenship; the Supreme Court then overturned this decision.

R (Miller) v The College of Policing and the HRA

The Court of Appeal ruled that the police infringed freedom of speech by threatening a Twitter user with criminal action for ‘gender-critical’ tweets

Freedom of Information Act 2000

This allows citizens a ‘right of access’ to information held by public bodies, with various exemptions. Citizens can thus hold these bodies accountable and to know what information is held on them

Examples include:

MPs’ expenses scandal in 2009 was exposed by journalists using the FoI Act

Equality Act 2010

• Consolidates existing equalities legislation, such as the Race Relations Act and Equal Pay Act 1970

• States that discrimination in public life is illegal with regard to nine ‘protected characteristics’

• Establishes a duty within public sector bodies to monitor diversity and reduce inequalities

Lee v Ashers Baking Company

• Gareth Lee ordered a cake supporting gay marriage from Ashers Baking Company. The bakers declined on religious grounds.

• Lee filed a complaint for discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation, and the County Court awarded him damages

• The Northern Irish Court of Appeal upheld the decision

• Ashers Baking Company then appealed to the UK Supreme Court, which ruled that the bakers had not discriminated on the basis of Lee’s identity, but had refused because of the message they were asked to present

Rwanda asylum plan

• In 2022, Boris Johnson announced a plan for illegal immigrants and asylum seekers to be deported to Rwanda for processing, asylum and resettlement; successful claimants would gain permanent residency in Rwanda.

• However, on the day of a planned flight deportation to Rwanda, the European Court of Human Rights ruled the removal of an Iraqi man unlawful, and the flight was cancelled.

• A group of asylum seekers took the plan to the Court of Appeal, which ruled the scheme unlawful as Rwanda is not a safe country; the Supreme Court upheld this decision, so the government passed a bill declaring Rwanda a safe country.

Parliament protecting rights

Parliament is sovereign and so can pass laws to protect.

Examples include:

• The Equality Act 2010

• Legalisation of gay marriage in 2014

HRA protecting rights

The ECHR can challenge government actions under human rights law.

Examples include:

Blocking the deportation flights to Rwanda

Pressure groups protecting rights

They can force the government to act or challenge its actions in court.

Examples include:

Liberty’s appeal against face recognition cameras

The judiciary protecting rights

The courts can use the power of judicial review to declare government actions unlawful.

Examples include:

The Court of Appeal ruled the Rwanda asylum plan unlawful as Rwanda is not a safe country and the Supreme Court upheld this decision.

AO3

Frequency

Recency

Importance

Cost

International comparison