Neuropsychology

What is trephination why is it done? What cultures was it known in? What do we know about the 'theory' cultures used to justify trepanning?

the drilling of holes within the skull in hopes to relieve pressure or swelling from a traumatic brain injury. It was known to European, South American and African culture

Which structures in the adult human brain come from vertebrate metencephalon?

What were the two theories about the structure where behavior originates? What theory was held by Hippocrates? Aristotle?

the cardiac hypothesis by Aristotle and the brain hypothesis by Hippocrates. The cardiac hypthesis states that action is controlled through the heart. Meanwhile, the brain hypothesis states that actions are distributed within the brain and if the brain is injured it affects behavior

What did the humor theory and ventricular theory aim to explain? What was the difference in what they explained?

aim to explain where behavior originates. The humor theory originated from Hippocrates. It states that the body has four biles: blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile. They each have to be in balance or else it will cause brain damage.

Too much blood: is overly excited

Too much yellow bile: easily angered

Too much black bile: melancholy

Too much phlegm: Is lack of emotion.

The ventricle theory originated by Galen. It states there are 3 ventricles, the first ventricle is common sense, the second ventricle is judging and decisions, the third ventricle is memory.

What was Galen's knowledge of anatomy based on? How did Andreis Vesalius improve upon this, how was how he able to do so?

came from being a surgeon to the gladiators in the Helen Era. He saw that brain damage impairs functions and nerves from sense organs go to brains and putting can stop movement.

What is phrenology and its relation to localization of function? Who were the first two men famous for holding to localization of function in its weird variation?

the study of head bumps to determine person's traits. The first two men responsible for holding to localization of function were Paul Broca and Carl Wernike.

What is equipotentiality? What led Flourens to hold the view of equipotentiality of function in the brain? What is mass action and what led Karl Lashley to hold the mass action iew of function in the brain ?

a hypothesis put forward from Lasley is the theory that the brain has the capacity (in the case of injury) to transfer functional memory from the damaged portion of the brain to other undamaged portions of the brain. What led Flourens to hold the view of equipotentiality of function in the brain was his experiments on cats and removed parts of the brain to see where it affects. Good care can help for recovery

What view did Hugh samplings Jackson propound w.r.t. the organization of the nervous system?

What was Luria's view on the organization of the nervous system?

equipotentiality existed but only in limited areas•

3 units:

1. The brain stem-breathing, heart beat, etc

2. The rear parts of the cerebellum - sensory (occipital and parietal)

3. Sends to parts higher up in the brain such as the frontal lobes - controlling of behavior

What is the distinction between the central and peripheral nervous system?

is encased by bone and is made of the nerves, spinal cord and the brain. The peripheral nervous is not encased by bone and includes all of the nerves both sensory and motor connecting the CNS to the muscles, organs, and sensory structures of the body

What parts comprise the central nervous system?

brain and spinal cord

What is the difference between the somatic and autonomic nervous system?

the part of the peripheral nervous system associated with the voluntary control of body movements through the skeletal muscles and mediation of involuntary reflex arcs. The autonomic nervous system (ANS) can be subdivided into the parasympathetic nervous system (PSNS) and the sympathetic nervous system (SNS).

Explain the difference between afferent and efferent fibers?

Afferent- nerves go towards the brain

Efferent- nerves go away from the brain

How are dorsal, ventral, rostral, caudal, medial, lateral, superior, inferior, anterior, and posterior used?

They are used to describe direction point of the body.

Dorsal-back (below the head)

Ventral-front (below the head)

Anterior-(rostral)- front of the snout

Posterior-(caudal) - back of the tail (back of head)

Medial- towards the middle

Lateral- away from the middle

Inferior- below/lower

Superior-above/upper

How are dorsal, ventral, rostral, and caudal different for the head and trunk?

Head and trunk differ

Head:

Rostral (towards snout)

Caudal (towards the back)

Ventral (bottom of the head)

Dorsal (top of the head)

Trunk:

Rostral (towards snout aka upwards)

Ventral (towards belly aka front)

Caudal (towards tail aka downwards)

Dorsal (towards back)

What are the sagittal, transverse, horizontal, frontal, coronal, midsagittal planes of section ?

Coronal-front plane of the brain

Sagittal- half way thru the middle

Mid sagital- straight thru the middle

Transverse- split by superior to inferior

Frontal- split front to back

What are the two general classes of cells in the nervous system? What are the ranges of estimates for the quantity of each of these classes?

neurons (nerve cells) and glial cells. There are 100 billion neurons and glial cells has 50 times as many neurons

What are the parts of a neuron? What is the main function of the neuron and which special neuron parts help with this?

Neurons are made of the nucleus, mitochondria, and the cell body. The main job of the neuron is info transmission. Neurons receive this info through its dendrites

What makes the difference between a uni-polar, bipolar, and multi-polar neuron?

Multipolar neurons are so-named because they have many (multi-) processes that extend from the cell body: lots of dendrites plus a single axon. Functionally, these neurons are either motor (conducting impulses that will cause activity such as the contraction of muscles) or association (conducting impulses and permitting 'communication' between neurons within the central nervous system).

Unipolar neurons have but one process from the cell body. However, that single, very short, process splits into longer processes (a dendrite plus an axon). Unipolar neurons are sensory neurons - conducting impulses into the central nervous system.

Bipolar neurons have two processes - one axon & one dendrite. These neurons are also sensory. For example, biopolar neurons can be found in the retina of the eye.

What is a myelin sheath? What difference does it make if an axon is myelinated or not?

the insulating covering around an axon or nerve fiber. It protects the electricity from leaking out allowing ATP to go faster. There is a difference in speed if the axon is myelinated or not. If the axon is myelinated it can travel at a speed of 120 meters per second. However, unmyelinated it can only go at a speed of 30 meters per second, a quarter of the myelinated speed. You want info to get to your brain asap!

What are the types of glial cells? What is the function of microglia, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells?

microglia and macroglia. The function of a micoglia cells is to eat rubbish in the cell and helps support the immune system. Macroglia are often referred to the glue cells and provide structural support. Under the category of the macroglia cells there are:

Oligodendrocytes- which are cells that put myelin on the axons of the CNS

Astrocytes- are restricted to the brain and spinal cord, have elaborate local processes that give these cells a starlike appearance (hence the prefix "astro"). The major function of astrocytes is to maintain, in a variety of ways, an appropriate chemical environment for neuronal signaling. They are the biggest group of glial cells.

Schwan cells-helps with the myelination of the axons in the PNS

How are oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells the same and different?

Oligodendrocytes- myelinate the axons in the CNS

while Schwann cells myelinate the axons in PNS

What is the difference in compositon between white and gray matter? Where is gray matter found in the brain?

White matter is mostly made of axons. Gray matter is mostly made of cell bodies. White matter is found in the center of the brain and grey matter is found on the outskirts

What is the relationship between fibers, tracts and pathway?

They all travel towards the brain

What in general is multiple sclerosis?

its a demyelinating disorder. It is a long-lasting disease that can affect your brain, spinal cord, and the optic nerves in your eyes. It can cause problems with vision, balance, muscle control, and other basic body functions.

What is the general disease mechanism in MS? Which cells appear to get attacked particularly?

The general disease mechanism in MS is demylelination. Myelin gets attacks and eventually disappears. This is usually caused by the immune system attacking oligiodendrocytes because it has mistake it as a foreign body.

What is the proximal cause of MS? What is the thinking as to what starts that (distal cause)?

Proximal cause is autoimmune disease

Distal cause is possibly genetic susceptibility and environmental trigger

What categories of symptoms occur in MS? What could be the cause of the emotional symptoms?

The categories of symptoms that occur in MS are:

Sensory

Motor

Cognitive

Emotional

Cognitive symptoms are mostly memory problems

Cause of emotional symptoms is not directly MS but by changes in brain

What is the incidence of MS in the Us? What is the status of the latitude-observation symptoms?

Incidence of MS in the US is 1 in 2000. Current latitude beliefs are that latitude does not play a part, rather, genetics plays a larger role.

What is the usual age of onset of MS? What is this the gender difference in incidence?

Onset of MS is usually is 20s-50s. 1/2 to 2 times more common in women then men.

What are the 3 characteristics of MS that get treated?

Cognitive, motor and sensory, primarily by preventing attack on oligodendrocytes. Progressive MS leads to lesions which have effects on emotions: cannot really be treated (outside of therapy or psychopharmacotics)

What are neurogenesis and migration? When does most neurogenesis take place?

Neurogenesis is the formation of new neurons. this usually finishes after you're born (first trimester) however, a few places in the brain can still form new neurons even after birth. Neurons then migrate to where it needs to be.

What is Synaptogenesis? When does it start and how long does it continue?

Synaptogenesis is the formation of synapses connects neurons. It starts in the second trimester and continues throughout the life span

What is myelination? When does it start and how long does it continue?

Formation of myelin sheath. Starts in 14th week of pregnancy, continues through adolescence.

What is synaptic pruning? When does it start and how long does it continue?

Destruction of synapses that are not frequently used, and the strengthening of those that are (LTP). You want only the most efficient and quickest route. Pruning starts near the time of birth and is completed by the time of sexual maturation in humans.

What three layers does the embryonic plate develop into? What 2 major structures does the ectoderm develop into?

The three layers the embryonic plate develop into ectoderm, mesoderm, and entoderm. The two major structures the ectoderm develop into is the skin and nervous system.

When does the neutral tube close on average at the anterior and posterior pores?

The open ends of the neural tube close at approx. the 26th day of gestation, with the anterior end subsequently creating the brain, and the posterior end forming the spinal cord.

The process of forming and closing the neural tube is called neurulation.

What are the defects that result when the neural pores do not close? Which type of non closure has the more serious defects?

Failure of the neural tube to close during development can cause a number of developmental disorders.

EX: neuroscientists believe that spina bifida, a congenital developmental disorder characterized by an opening in the spinal cord, results from the disruption of the proliferation rate of neural cells or from the failure of these cells to differentiate (the process of increasing regional specialization of cells) properly in the neural tube.

Spina Bifida = posterior neuropore does not close

In contrast, when the anterior end of the tube fails to close, the brain fails to develop anatomically, producing a condition termed anencephaly. In this condition, the brain is a vascular mass and the infant does not survive.

Anencephaly = frontal neuropore does not close

What is lissencephaly (or agyria_? What is thought to be the process that is disturbed in lissencepphaly?

Lissencephaly is due to the defective neuronal migration. Its a defect that happens during the 11th week of brain development. The nervous system is the process that is disturbed in lissencepphaly

What is microcephaly? Is the mechanism causing microcephaly known? What general types of distal causes for microcephaly are known? Which virus is in the news for its apparent relationship with microcephaly

Microcephaly is a disorder that causes a baby's head to be small and not fully developed. General types of distal causes for microcephaly are pre and post natal causes. The virus in the news for its apparent relationship with microcephaly is the zika virus.

Name the seven CNS structures caudal to rostral?

Spinal Cord

Cerebellum

Medulla oblongata

Pons

Midbrain

Corpus callosum

Cortex

Which structure in the adult human brain comes from the vertebrae myelencephalon?

The medulla oblongata in the adult human brain comes from the vertebrae myelencephalon.

Which structures of the adult human brain come from the vertebrate metencephalon?

The cerebellum and pons in the adult human brain come from the vertebrate metencephalon?

What is another name for the vertebrate mesencephalon?

Midbrain

Which structures in the adult human brain come from the vertebrate diencephalon?

Thalamus, hypothalamus, and pineal body

What structures in the adult human brain come from the vertebrate telencephalon?

Neocortex, basal ganglia, limbic system, olfactory bulb, lateral ventricles

What are the names of the meningeal membranes? Know the order, and how located with respect to one another.

The Dura matter-outer layer. Leathery and tough membrane

Arachnoid- middle layer- "spider-like". Overlies the subarachnoid space, contains blood vessels

Pia matter- inner layer. Overlies every detail of the outer brain (super thin)

What is the result of folding of the dura in the skull?

The result of the dura matter folding are dura folds that divide the brain into hemispheres and separates cerebrum from cerebellum

What is the subarachnoid space? What structures and liquid in that space?

Subarachnoid space (subarachnoid cavity) is the anatomic space between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater. The subarachnoid space is filled with CSF as well as cerebral arteries and veins.

What two types of brain bleed were mentioned w.r.t. their meningeal location?

Epidural and subdural hematoma

What is cerebrospinal fluid? Where is it formed? How (in general) does it drain to the venous system? How much it (approximately) is formed on average per day? How much (approximately) is present in the ventricles and subarachnoid space at any time?

Clear colorless bodily fluid found in the brain and spine. Circulates within the ventricular system of the brain. The ventricles are a series of cavities filled in brain. The majority is produced from within the two lateral ventricles. From here, it passes through theInterventricular foramina (of Monro) to the third ventricle, then the cerebral aqueduct (of Sylvius) to the fourth ventricle. Thefourth ventricle is an outpouching on the posterior part of the brainstem. From the fourth ventricle, the fluid passes through three foramen to enter the subarachnoid space. It passes through the Foramen of Magendie on the midline, and two Foramen of Luschka laterally. The subarachnoid space covers the brain and spinal cord. Approximately a pint a day (500 ml). Approximately 150 ml.

What are the main functions of the CSF?

CSF protects brain and spinal cord from trauma.

CSF supplies nutrients to nervous system tissue.

CSF removes waste products from cerebral metabolism.

Be able to describe the blood supply to the brain and the Circle of Willis (identify on picture), including: internal carotid arteries, vertebral arteries, basilar (1), anterior, middle and posterior cerebral arteries, anterior communicating artery (1) and posterior communicating arteries (2)

Refer for lecture 4 photo

What is the blood-brain barrier? (class 5 but it goes with the blood supply part)?

Blood brain barrier system protects the brain and central nervous system /spinal cord from many potentially dangerous or toxic molecules. However, there are times when the barrier can also prevent entry of beneficial and need substances.

How do tight junctions, and astrocytes contribute to the BBB?

the astrocytes produce factors that can induce the endothelial cells that line the blood vessels to form tight junctions that make it harder for potentially dangerous or toxic blood borne molecules getting into the brain.

What is the point of having an incomplete BBB in places?

To allow the flow of hormones

Where is the area postrema located? And what does it have to do with BBB?

inferoposterior limit of the fourth ventricle. The area postrema is a medullary structure in the brain that controls vomiting. Its privileged location in the brain also allows the area postrema to play a vital role in the control of autonomic functions by the central nervous system.

What is the relationship between the spinal cord segments and spinal vertebrae? Where does the spinal cord end?

Each section of the spinal cord has spinal nerve coming off of it on each side. Each spinal vertebrae are named after which exit they come out of. The spinal cord ends before the 5th lumbar vertebrae.

How is the nomenclature of the spinal cord related to that of the spine?

Areas are synonymous with areas of spine

Every spinal segment has a pair of spinal nerves stemming from it

8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, and 1 fused coccygeal nerve

What are dermatomes?

the lateral wall of each somite in a vertebrate embryo, giving rise to the connective tissue of the skin

What is the cauda equina?

CES affects a bundle of nerve roots called cauda equina (Latin for horse's tail). These nerves are located at the lower end of the spinal cord in the lumbosacral spine. They send and receive messages to and from your legs, feet, and pelvic organs.

Where is lumbar puncture done? Why is it done there? Which meninges need to be punctured? How do lumbar punctures and epidurals differ?

A lumbar puncture (spinal tap) is performed in your lower back, in the lumbar region around (13-14, 14-15). During a lumbar puncture, a needle is inserted between two lumbar bones (vertebrae) to remove a sample of cerebrospinal fluid. This is the fluid that surrounds your brain and spinal cord to protect them from injury. The procedure is approximately the same, but generally an epidural catheter is left in your back, so that you can get a constant infusion of numbing medication for as long as your labor lasts, whereas a spinal is just one shot of medication.

What characteristics of the CSF can be informative medically?

Normal CSF can't coagulate. After subarachanoid hemorrage CSF may contain blood. It can also contain cell count, glucose level, and protein content.

What are the differences between a motor neuron and a sensory neuron?

Sensory neurons carry signals from the outer parts of your body (periphery) into the central nervous system. Motor neurons (motoneurons) carry signals from the central nervous system to the outer parts (muscles, skin, glands) of your body.

What is the dorsal root ganglion?

The dorsal root ganglion contains the cell bodies of sensory neurons that bring information from the periphery to the spinal cord.

Be able to identify the following structures in a cross-section of spinal cord: gray matter, white matter, dorsal root ganglion, dorsal and ventral roots of spinal nerves. Which one are afferent? Which ones are efferent.

What causes the differences in amount of white and gray matter along the length of the spinal cord?

more and more tracts of white matter leave spinal cord to become spinal nerves, leaving a greater proportions of gray matter towards of the bottom of the spinal cord

What are the two factors that determine the impairments in spinal cord injuries? Explain how these affect the severity of the impairments

Two factors that determine the impairments in spinal cord injuries is the level and the extent of the damage

Which level of damage means the person with spinal cord damage will require a ventilator ?

Cervical injuries above the C4 level may require a ventilator for the person to breathe.

What is paraplegic and what a quadriplegic?

Paraplegic is the loss of control over lower limbs.

Quadriplegic is the loss of control over all limbs

What are the top three causes of spinal cord injuries?

The top three causes of spinal cord injuries are motor vehicle accident, work accidents, and sports/recreation accident

Where do the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system nerves exit the spinal cord?

The sympathetic nerves come off the thoracic-lumbar area. The parasympathetic nerves exit off cranio-sacral regions (medulla, sphincter, bladder)

What is the function of the sympathetic nervous system? What is the function of the parasympathetic nervous system?

The sympathetic nervous system is the activating nervous system which mobilizes you. It increases your blood pressure and heart rate aka fight flight or fright. The parasympathetic system is the deactivating nervous system, which brings your heart rate down and prepares your body for rest and relaxation. Regulate breathing, digestion, slow heart rate, allows for salivation

What is the most important practical information about getting the parasympathetic system more active that was mentioned in class?

Where is the Medulla oblongata? Which things are regulated there?

Located just above the spinal cord and responsible for vital reflexes such as breathing, heart rate, vomiting, salivation, coughing, and sneezing