French Revolution

A-Level edexcel France in Revolution

absolute monarchy

pre-revolution: the King had absolute power to impose legislation and govern as he wished

lettres de chachet

the monarch’s power to imprison people without cause. It was often seen as a form of despotism and could easily be abused; it was heavily critiqued during the Enlightenment

parlements

local law courts/councils, by the 1780s, there were 13 situated across the country. They were unelected, and no powers to make laws. They consisted mainly of higher clergymen (such as bishops) and nobles

powers of the parlements

could refuse to implement laws that they thought went against the Ancien Regime: however king could order a lit de justice. But would be accused of despotism and w/o support of the parlements couldn’t implement laws,

lit de justice

'bed of justice’ - formal session of the Parlement of Paris, for the compulsory registration of the royal edicts and to impose the king’s sovereignty

3 estates

The 1st Estate consisted of clergy, the 2nd nobility, and the 3rd everyone else

population of 1st estate

around 130,000 out of a total population of around 28 million. Most were quite poor and were monks, nuns, and parish priests (lower clergy). The rest were upper clergy and far more wealthy, these included bishops, abbots, and archbishops

role of the church

provided the limited poor relief, education, and hospitals that were available at the time

Tithes

to fund Church - 3rd estate forced to pay tax worth 1/10 of a person’s income or produce. Some hated paying as they thought it simply added to the pockets of the higher clergy

absenteeism

many bishops rarely even visited their diocese that they were supposed to control

population of second estate

estimated to have been somewhere between 120,00 and 350,00

privileges of second estate

exempt from all forms of direct taxation and many form of indirect taxation, military service. Had monopolies on certain goods (including wine) and businesses (including bakeries) and rights on fishing and hunting

feudal dues

paid to the landowner by peasants employed on land of nobility- often equate to 1/2 of a persons total income and would ensure that they could never accumulate enough wealth to buy their own land

types of peasantry

some owned land, some (most) would be poor labourers, and some would be employed on the land of the nobility

skilled and unskilled labourers

The unskilled would live in slums in the city, and the skilled labourers- usually skilled craftsmen- were organised into guilds

bourgeoisie

middle class who were well educated doctors, teachers, lawyers, etc. Exposed to enlightenment ideas- had wealth rivaling the nobility, but had the burdens of the peasantry. This group was expanding rapidly and is estimated to have tripled in the century due to the growth of industry and trade.

enlightenment

the age of reason: growth of new ideas that promoted questioning the societies in which we lived. Enlightened thinkers (philosophes) ideas were discussed in salons, the growing mercantile towns, and coffee houses by the educated nobility and bourgeoisie

Charles Montesquieu- principle political work

The Spirit of the Laws, 1748

Charles Montesquieu

Critical of Ancien Regime, supported switch to Constitutional monarchy, wanted democracy although thought total democracy for entire franchise would = a mob rule - only the educated elites should/know how to govern

Francois Voltaire principle political work

Philosophical Letters, 1733

Francois Voltaire

praised English laws for being more liberal and tolerating. Believed in freedom of expression and speech, a republican

spent some years in the Bastille before being permanently banned from Paris

Jean-Jacques Rousseau Principle political work

Discourse on Inequality, 1755; The Social Contract, 1762

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

believed that (as outlined in the social contract), everyone has the right to have a say in the laws that they live under. A republican- thought that the monarchy only served the rights of the ruling classes, and was a strong believer in the right to freedom

banned from France and forced to live in exile in Britain

Censorship and the repression of enlightened ideas

publication of literature and essays that was critical of the system were banned. Printing houses had to get a royal license by the royal censor in order to print works

failures of censorship

lots of banned works were able to come through the border with Geneva, where printing rules were much more relaxed

The spread of radical ideas

pamphlets and books containing radical enlightened ideas spread quicker in urban cities, in bookshops and cafes.

More accessible to those bourgeoisie members of the middle class who were literate and had the time to read/discuss such literatur

Louis-Phillipe Joseph, Duc d’Orleans (Duke of Orleans)

spread enlightened ideas: member of the bourbon royal family but at his Palais Royal, (exempt from censorship laws) would hold intellectual gatherings and discuss/print the pamphlets & works of the philosophes. Known as Phillipe Egalite (Equality).

Impact of American Revolution in spreading radical ideas

French soldiers who fought in America against despotism, monarchy, and tyranny returned in 1783, bringing spirit of revolution

Marquis de Lafayette

key revolutionary leaders, a general in the American war of independence

impact of enlightenment ideas

limited - ideas had been spreading before ascension in 1774, so why did these ideas spread and grow so much in the 1780s?

1730s agriculture

stable - supported population growth

bad harvests

1778-79, 1781-82, 1775-76, and 1787-88. The harvest of 1788 was particularly bad as a bad hailstorm followed a bad drought destroyed much of the crop

Increase in bread prices in paris between August 1788 and March 1789

over 50% - many went without food

impact of bad harvest on urban workers

indirect - poverty increased the demand for manufactured goods decreased, increasing urban unemployment

2 types of tax

direct (applied to an individual person)

indirect (applied on goods/purchases).

Often those more wealthy were able to buy exemption from certain taxes

Taille

direct land tax proportional to amount owed, 3rd estate

capitation

direct income tax proportional to income (22 categories), 2nd & 3rd estate (1st could buy don gratuit)

don gratuit

free gift - could buy tax exemption

vingtieme

direct income tax, 1/20th of persons income, in theory everyone but 1st/2nd could buy don gratuit

Gabelle

indirect tax on salt which was needed to preserve food, 3rd estate

tabac

indirect tax on tobacco, payed by all

what % of state income came from inidrect tax pre-rev

55%

Tax Farmers

employees of La Ferme Generale (The General Farm) - second highest employer of people after the army. The tax farmers had the right to use force to collect tax that people refused to pay and the lack on centralized control meant that these roles were easily open to abuse

why was the tax system unprofitable

the richest in society paid the least in tax- only 1.6% of state income came from direct tax on land (and land was the largest indicator of wealth at this time).

seven years war and impact on finance

1756-63 : against the British, losing lots of money and valuable overseas colonies in North America, lost by Louis XV

1780 state expenditure (%) x3

• 43% of State expenditure was committed to debt

• 23% on state administration

• 25% on the war department

1786 state revenue

476 million livres compared to an expenditure of 633 million livres, and the problem of debt was only worsening

american war of indpendence

(1776-83) was fought against the British and, keen to weaken the British empire and revenge their lost in the 7 years war, in 1778 Louis XVI signed a military alliance with the USA

American rev. impact on state economy

state debt of 1.3 billion livres. This would prove to be a cost that the French could not afford and, by 1788, state expenditure on debt grew to over 50%.

state expenditure of Louis XVI court

6% of the state expenditure.

venalities

act of buying titles - venal titles often bought second estate who wanted to be closer to the king or wealthy members of the third estate who wanted to buy their way into the second estate, and get all the privilege that came with this.

how many people bought venal title in the 18th century

estimated 30,000-50,000

why were venalities not a good solution to the economy

short term boost to the national income- wealthy tax-paying members of the third estate who bought themselves into the second estate became tax-exempt, and no longer contributed as much to the economy as they weren’t paying third estate exclusive taxes such as the Taille and Gabelle.

Venality was also damaging as it prevented the promotion of people in the court based off merit, resulting in an administration based nearly entirely from wealth; corruption and incompetency were therefore commonplace.

Louis XVI character

• brother died in 1761 leaving Louis as dauphin (heir)

• didn’t get education and financial support of dauphin and explored other interests, notably locksmithing

• inherited the throne at the young age of 20 ill-equipped and unprepared to rule = indecisive and easily led.

public opinion of Marie Antionette

Dislike:

• Austrian = distrust

• Not familiar with Versailles etiquette

• Rumour of infertility (first child in 1778)

when did Louis XVI and Marie Antionette marry

1770 - aged 14 / 15 - married Habsburgs and Bourbons

Marie Antionette nickname

Madame Decifit (debt) - controversy over spending of court during 1780s financial crisis

the affair of the diamond necklace

1785 - accused of stealing a diamond necklace worth 1,600,000 livres. A criminal plot in which Antionette’s signature was used to try and steal the necklace, but despite the criminals being tried and found guilty, the fact that so many would believe that she would spend to much in the middle of a financial crisis demonstrates the perceptions of the queen

Antionette peasant cottage

acted (but not living) as a peasant, in a ‘peasant cottage’ during the height of the financial crisis in 1787-89

When was Turgot appointed controller-general

1774, he was a physiocrat (influenced by enlightened ideas)

Turgot’s reform

introduction of free trade in grain: prior to 1774, the control of trade in grain was subject to local complex rules and regulations. The reforms came under some opposition from the aristocrats who owned the trade monopolies, but overall it was supposed to benefit the majority and supply grain to everyone whilst cost remained low

why did Turgots reform fail

terrible weather in 1774-75 resulted in extremely bad harvests; the price of grain shot up and many went without bread

what arose as a result of TUrgot’s reform

uprisings in some areas (the flour wars) saw conflict in 180 towns, cities, and hamlets over a period of 17 days.

what second reforms (x2) did Turgot propose in 1776, reaction of parlements

1. edict for the banning of the corvee

2. proclaimed his aim to remove privilege and introduce a universal property tax that would be payed by all 3 estates

This was a step to far for the Parlements and first and second estates and they refused to sanction his reforms. The opposition became too great and Louis was forced to ask Turgot to resign in May 1776.

When was Necker made minister of state finance (1st time)

1777

what did Necker publish in 1781

a record of state finances, a Compte rendu au roi (report to the king) - announced there was a surplus of 1 million livres.

brought major popular support as the public believed and valued the transparency of Necker, as well as this it increased loans to the French State from financiers- something especially in need to fund support for the American Revolution.

However, the report concealed the true deficit of French state of 46 million livres and only added to state debt later. It also made the revelation of the true situation of the French economy more shocking to the public instead of if the true figures had been published earlier.

Necker’s other reforms

reduced the number of tax farmers, recognising their inefficiency and corruption, and took steps to create provincial assemblies where the third estate could be represented. However, only 2 assemblies were created before resistance from Versailles prevented the plan from extending further.

also tried to streamline state finances by removing venal ministers and replacing them with salaried and trained officials. This meant that whilst it was a step towards greater efficiency, there were less opportunity for the wealthy to buy status and was cause for much opposition from those close to Louis.

Lois failed to support his financial minister and in 1781 Necker was forced to resign.

Necker’s second ministry

August 1788 - 11 July 1789 : blamed for making the decision to vote by order, rather than by head. He was however very popular with the 3rd estate due to his enlightened views and his dismissal in July 1789 was one of the causes of the Storming of the Bastille.

Necker’s 3rd ministry

less significant as he was caught outside the events as other figures, such as Comte (count) de Mirabeau, rose to the fore. (this was his final ministry)

when was calonne appointed controller general

1783

most controversial of calonne

proposed the sale of Church land and a universal land tax to be paid by all estates. So controversial were the reforms that they required the approval of a body representing the people. It would have been the obvious choice to call the Estates-General, but instead they call the Assembly of Notables, who were appointed by Calonne and expected to support him

What happened when the Assembly was convened in February 1789 to talk about sale of Church land

When they convened in February 1787 some were sceptical of the need for such radical reform, largely due to the Compte Rendu which had been published just years earlier and given the impression of a healthy economy. There was some division, but ultimately the Assembly refused to pass the reforms

Failures and successes of Brienne as Controller general (made in 1787)

manage to get the Paris parlement to sanction an edict for free internal trade, but was once again unsuccessful upon trying to implement a universal land tax.

The Paris parlement argued in July 1787 that the introduction of such a radical tax that was so perverse to the traditions of the Ancien Regime would require permission from the Estates-General, but this time Louis took decisive action in support of his controller-general.

what happened to the Paris parlement when they refused to sanction Calonne’s proposal of a universal land tax

On July 15 the Paris parlement was exiled to the town of Troyes, 160km from Paris.

revolt of the aristocracy

Louis tried to go further in his actions and limit the legislative power of the parlements, but this was met with serious opposition from the aristocracy

Revolt of Grenoble, June 1788

the Grenoble parlement refused to disband royal troops were sent to disassemble it forcefully tiles were dropped on Louis’ troops from surrounding buildings, and the day henceforth became known as the ‘day of tiles’.

When was the Paris parlement reconvened

August 1788 -Louis’ reputation had been seriously damaged, in an effort to garner support Louis recalled the members of the Paris parlement to the city

what happened at the same time the Paris parlement had reconvened

16 August 1788 - France was declared effectively bankrupt as the treasury declared that all payments would be suspended, meaning that lenders were no longer going to provide the state with further loans. This had serious implications as it meant that the state would be unable to pay its soldiers and to finance the royal court.

Brienne’s resignation after Paris parlement

Brienne was pressured to resign and Lois, recognising Necker’s popularity with the people, reappointed him as finance director In a further attempt to appease the nobles and to secure finances, he agreed to convene a meeting of the Estates-General to discuss the economy of the state. When the Estates General did meet in May 1789, events would quickly accelerate outside his control.

why was Louis’ situation in the 1788-89 financial crisis impossible

Louis did rule as an absolute monarch with power to change the law, yet he was also be the protector of the traditions of the system. Thus, when he tried to reform the system for good, he was accused of tyranny and despotism.

when was the estates general last called?

1614

Cahiers de doleances

list of grievances - people of France invited to send their complaints or proposals to be discussed at the estates general (announced august 1788)

What is the Third Estate ?

As well as cahiers Necker invited writers to send their suggestions to the estates general.

Abbe Sieyes pamphlet was a response to this request - January 1789

When did the estates general gather at Versailles

5 may 1789

meeting of the estates general - how many deputies for each estate

each region represented by an elected member divided by estate. 1st estate represented by 303 deputies, 2nd estate by 282 nobles and the 3rd estate 578 deputies

representatives of the 3rd estate

mainly bourgeoisie - notably Abbe Sieyes and Comte de Mirabeau

controversy surrounding voting system for estates general

voting by estate not by head, meaning 1st and 2nd estate with similar interests would be able to out vote the 3rd

many 1st/2nd estate dputies also wanted voting by head and supported rights of 3rd

debate over voting

Louis failied to exert influence - perhaps distracted by death of son/heir

what happened on 17 June 1789

deputies of the 3rd estate announced they were the national assembly and as they represented the greatest portion of France they would decide the future of the French constitution

2 days later the First Estate voted to join them

what did Louis decide to try and bring estates together - 1789

called a Seance Royale (royal session)

what happened on 20 June 1789

3rd estate deputies arrived at the palace to find the hall where they had met had been locked shut and guarded to set up for the seance royale which was scheduled for 3 days time

looked like Louis was preventing them from assembly and found another place in the palace to meet and found a ‘tennis’ court. Here, under the leadreship of Mirabeau they swore a collective oath - the Tennis Court Oath

said they wouldnt disband until the creation of a constituiton

23 june 1789

seance royale was held - Louis was willing to accept significant restrictions to his powers, including abolition of lettres de cachet, freedom of press and new taxation but refused to accept national assembly

what happened when louis tried to dismiss the estates to their separate meetings?

third estate, in accordance with tennis court oath, refused to leave the hall. The next day scores of second and first estate deputies joined with the third estate in defiance of the king

With little other choice, Louis ordered the remaining deputies to join them and the national assembly was legitimised

11 July 1789

Louis dismissed Necker due to 3rd estate sympathies

why were there demonstrations in paris

anger over price of bread, poverty, support for national assembly, anger at dismissial of Necker - some attacked customs ports and turned violent

how many troops were summoned to paris in July 1789

20,000

price of bread in 1789 compared to builder’s labourer

bread - 14.5 sous (pennies)

days work - 18 sous

how many muskets had been siezed on 13 july 1789

28,000

storming of the Bastille

14 July 1789 - demanded enterence but the governer (de Launay) refused. He ordered his troops to fire on the crows and violence erupted. Bastille was stormed and De Launay was stabbled, killed, decapitated and his head held on a pike

why head to bastille?

symbol of despotism, held prisoners of lettres de cachet, bit also held lots of gunpower