Chapter 2: Bioethics and Moral Theories

Vocabulary flashcards covering key terms and their definitions from Chapter 2: Bioethics and Moral Theories.

Moral theory

A framework that explains why an action is right or wrong or why a person’s character is good or bad.

Theories of right action

Moral theories that focus on whether actions themselves are right or wrong (often called theories of obligation or duty).

Consequentialist theories

Rightness of actions depends solely on their consequences.

Deontological theories

Rightness of actions depends partly or wholly on the action’s intrinsic nature or duties, not its consequences.

Utilitarianism

A consequentialist view, the right actions maximize good over bad for everyone involved.

Act-utilitarianism

Rightness of an action depends on the relative balance of good over bad produced by that specific act.

Rule-utilitarianism

Right action follows a rule that, if followed consistently, would maximize the good for everyone.

Bentham

Founder of classical utilitarianism; happiness (pleasure) is the intrinsic good to be maximized.

Mill

Expanded utilitarianism; argued there are higher and lower pleasures, not just quantity of pleasure.

Hedonistic utilitarianism

Utility is defined as pleasure; the aim is to maximize pleasure and minimize pain.

Higher vs. lower pleasures

Pleasures of the mind (higher) vs. bodily pleasures (lower); quality matters as well as quantity.

Impartiality

Treating the happiness and interests of all affected as equally important.

Kantian ethics

Moral duties derived from reason; actions are right if done from duty according to universal rules.

Categorical Imperative

Universal moral law: act only on maxims you could will to become universal laws.

Universal law

Moral values must be applicable to all rational agents without exception.

Humanity as an end in itself

Kant’s formulation, treat every person as an end, not as a means.

Autonomy

Rational beings capable of self-governance; fundamental respect in moral theory.

Principlism

Bioethics approach using multiple prima facie principles rather than a single rule.

Beauchamp & Childress

Developed principlism in Principles of Biomedical Ethics; four prima facie principles.

Four prima facie principles

Respect for autonomy, beneficence, nonmaleficence, and justice.

Prima facie principles

Principles that guide action but can be outweighed by competing duties in a given case.

Natural law theory

Right actions conform to moral standards discerned in nature through reason; teleology is central.

Thomas Aquinas

Dominant historical figure in natural law; human life and health are natural ends to preserve.

Doctrine of double effect

Noting that performing a good action with a bad side effect can be permissible if the bad effect isn’t intended.

Four tests (double effect)

(1) action permissible; (2) bad effect not intended to obtain good; (3) intention to achieve only the good effect; (4) bad effect not greater in importance than the good effect.

Double effect in abortion

Direct abortion is immoral; indirect abortion may be permissible under the four tests if intended cure or good outcome precedes the bad effect.

Rawls’s contract theory

Moral principles chosen under a hypothetical veil of ignorance to ensure fair distribution of rights and duties.

Original position

Hypothetical starting point in which individuals choose principles behind a veil of ignorance.

Veil of ignorance

Participants do not know their place in society, ensuring impartial choices.

Difference principle

Social and economic inequalities are permissible only if they benefit the least advantaged.

Equal basic liberties

Each person has an equal right to the most extensive system of basic liberties compatible with others’ liberties.

Aristotle & virtue ethics

Focus on developing virtuous character to achieve the good life (eudaimonia); virtue as habit.

Eudaimonia

The good life or flourishing; ultimate human good in virtue ethics.

Virtue as mean

Excellence is a mean between excess and deficiency; virtue arises from habituated balance.

Ethics of care

Moral perspective emphasizing relationships, empathy, and context over abstract rules.

Carol Gilligan

Feminist ethicist who argued for the ethics of care and differences between justice and care perspectives.

Kohlberg

Developmental psychologist whose stages of moral development emphasize justice; criticized by Gilligan.

Casuistry

Case-based moral reasoning focusing on precedent and analogy rather than universal rules.

Moral saint

A person whose every action is morally praiseworthy; two models: Loving Saint and Rational Saint.

Loving Saint

Moral saint motivated by love and care for others; happiness of others is central.

Rational Saint

Moral saint motivated by duty and rational respect for moral law; may sacrifice personal pleasures.

Moral criteria of adequacy

Three criteria to judge moral theories: consistency with considered judgments, consistency with moral life, and problem-solving resources.

Reflective equilibrium

Tight fit between theory and data; balance between considered judgments and principles.

Metamoral perspective/open question

Idea that there may be values beyond morality; questions about nonmoral goods and the limits of moral theory.

Intuitionism

View that some normative questions resist complete formalization and require nonderivative intuition.

Moral common sense

Widely shared, reasonable moral judgments used to test theories.