operant conditioning

reinforcement

consequences of behavior that increases the probability that the behavior will occur

punishment

consequences of behavior that decreases the probability that the behavior will occur

positive reinforcement

presentation of a pleasant stimulus after a behavior which increases probability of behavior

negative reinforcement

removal of an unpleasant stimulus after a behavior which increases probability of behavior

positive punishment

unpleasant stimulus follows behavior which decreases probability of behavior

negative punishment

removal of pleasant stimulus after a behavior which decreases probability of behavior

generalization

after a behavior is reinforced in one situation, it is peformed in a different situation

discrimination

a behavior that is reinforced in situation, is not performed in a different situation

A dance teacher praises a student for executing a particularly difficult move well, encouraging the student to continue practicing that move.

positive reinforcement

A student struggles with a particular routine. If they keep practicing, the teacher allows them to take a break, motivating the student to continue practicing to earn more breaks.

negative reinforcement

During rehearsal, a dancer is frequently disruptive. The instructor has them improv in front of the group. The discomfort of the spotlight discourages disruptive behavior.

positive punishment

A dancer repeatedly arrives late to practice. As a result, the instructor removes their privilege to participate in a special performance or competition. The removal of the opportunity discourages tardiness.

negative reinforcement

extinction

after the reinforcer is withdrawb, the behavior decreases

spontaneous recovery

after extinction, the behavior reappears

A dancer learns a specific type of turn in ballet class (e.g., a pirouette). Later, they perform a similar turn in jazz class (e.g., a jazz pirouette) with ease, applying the same technique.

generalization

A dancer practices routines to different songs. They learn to recognize subtle tempo changes and adjust their movements accordingly, understanding that fast-paced music requires sharper, quicker motions while slower music calls for fluidity.

discrimination

extinction

A dancer used to receive applause after every solo performance. Over time, the applause stops, and the dancer’s enthusiasm for performing solos diminishes.

After the dance teacher stopped praising the student, the student’s motivation declined. A few weeks later, the student performs the move perfectly and feels proud, briefly experiencing the initial motivation.

spontaneous recovery

continuous reinforcement

consequences are the same each time the behavior occurs

intermittent (partial) reinforcement

consequences are given only some of the times the behavior occurs

fixed-ratio

reinforcement for a fixed proportion of responses emitted

A dance teacher rewards a dancer with praise after every 5 successful pirouettes. The consistent pattern encourages the dancer to practice hard to earn the praise.

fixed-ratio

variable-ratio

reward for some percentage of responses, but unpredicted number of responses required before reinforcement

A dance instructor gives unexpected praise after an unpredictable number of successful turns—sometimes after 3, sometimes after 7, then 5. The dancer stays motivated, never knowing when the praise will come.

variable-ratio

fixed-interval

reinforcement for responses after a fixed amount of time

A dance teacher provides feedback every 10 minutes during a practice session, regardless of how many routines are performed. Dancers may slack off initially and then put in more effort closer to the reinforcement time.

fixed-interval

variable-interval

reinforcement for responses after an amount of time that is not constant

During practice, a choreographer gives feedback or praise at random intervals—sometimes after 5 minutes, then after 12 minutes, then 7 minutes. The dancers stay consistent, not knowing when feedback will come.

variable-interval

extrinsic motivation

pursuit of goal for external rewards

intrinsic motivation

pursuit of activity for its own sake

overjustification effect

too much reward which undermines intrinsic motivation