Introduction to World Religions: Key Concepts and Historical Contexts

Atheism

Rejection of the idea of a Supreme Being, preferring to look for objective scientific explanations of the world, life, and death.

• There is NO god.

Agnosticism

Claims that there is no evidence for the existence of god.

• It is impossible to know whether or not there is a god. Only what can be seen to be real can be understood.

Humanism

Rejects religion in favour of the advancement of humanity by its own efforts.

• There is no need for god since there is no higher moral power than people themselves.

Skepticism

Doubts the truth of religions.

• It is not possible to know anything for certain.

Believer

Faith replaces the need for proof of God's existence. For others, various arguments have been made that claim to prove the existence of God.

• Yes, there is a God.

Ecumenism

Promoted unity and cooperation among different Christian churches with the ultimate goal of full communion and mutual understanding.

Pantheism

All the universe, the world, reflects the Divine. Everything that exists is God. Matter is seen as an illusion.

Monotheism

The belief in only one God.

Polytheism

The belief in many Gods.

Materialism/Naturalism

Assumes that matter is all that exists. Investigates the world through the scientific method. Does not hold God as the first cause of the universe. Believes that matter is real, spirit is not.

Religion

Human beings' relation to that which they regard as holy, sacred, absolute, spiritual, divine, or worthy of especial reverence.

Root meaning of Religion

Comes from the Latin word 'religio', meaning obligation, bond, reverence, or conscientiousness toward the divine or sacred.

Abrahamic Monotheistic Faith Traditions

Judaism, Christianity & Islam.

Similarities of Abrahamic Faiths

All three worship the same singular, all-powerful God: Judaism: Yahweh, Christianity: God (understood as Trinity), Islam: Allah. Each traces spiritual lineage to Abraham.

Differences of Abrahamic Faiths

Judaism focuses on covenant, law, and identity as God's chosen people. Christianity centers on Jesus as the divine redeemer. Islam emphasizes complete submission to God's will as revealed to Muhammad.

Covenant

The agreement established between God and the ancient Israelites, first through Abraham and later through Moses, that designates the Jews as God's Chosen People.

Exclusivist

A person who holds the belief that only one religion, truth or path is valid.

Inclusivist

A person who holds that while their own religious path is the true one, others can attain salvation or truth through their own religions.

Pluralist

The acceptance and peaceful coexistence of multiple religions within a society.

Cosmology

The understanding of the nature of the universe.

Dualistic thinking

Sees reality primarily in terms of separation and opposites.

Non-Dualistic thinking

Sees reality as fundamentally interconnected rather than divided.

Western worldview (europe and north america)

Emphasizes individuality, analysis, control, and defined belief.

Eastern worldview (east and south asia)

Emphasizes relationality, integration, harmony, and lived wisdom.

• very family centered

Divine revelation

The process by which the sacred, God, or ultimate reality discloses truth about itself to humans.

7 Dimensions of religion

Experiential

Myths

Doctrine

Ethical

Ritual

Social

Material

Myths

Symbolic stories that convey fundamental truths about reality, human existence, and the sacred.

Culture

The set of beliefs, values, norms, customs, symbols, practices, and knowledge that shape how a group of people understands the world and interacts with it.

• Food, clothing, art, rituals, language, architecture.

• Assumptions, worldviews, ethics, ways of thinking, social norms.

Premodern Perspective

A time before the dominance of secular reasoning and scientific thought; emphasized ritual, tradition, and absolute morals based on obedience.

• Authority over individual reason

  Knowledge comes from:

  • Priests

  • Elders

  • Kings

  • Scriptures

• Myth & ritual

Modern Perspective

An evolution, shifting from a central public institution to a more individualistic expression influenced by science and rationalism.

• Science & reason

• Truth discovered

• Rational order

Postmodern Perspectives

Challenged traditional religious ideas by rejecting single, absolute truths in favour of culturally shaped narratives and individual interpretations.

• what counts as the truth?

• Doubt about progress

• No fixed order

Vatican II (1962-1965)

Includes liturgical changes, affirmed people have the right to practice their faith without coercion, made its teachings more relevant to contemporary life, fostering a broader theological perspective.

Nostra Aetate

1965 declaration from the Second Vatican Council that promotes mutual understanding and respect between Catholics and non-Catholics.

Judaism according to Nostra Aetate

Shared heritage, God's covenant, reject anti-Semitism, esteem for Jewish faith.

• Judaism is intrinsically connected to Christianity

• The Jewish people remain beloved by God

• Antisemitism is a grave moral wrong

• Christians are called to dialogue, humility, and respect

Islam according to Nostra Aetate

Worship of one God, respect for prophets, ethical life, dialogue encouraged.

• Muslims worship the one God

• Islam shares Abrahamic roots with Christianity

• Islamic prayer and morality are sincerely religious

• Christians and Muslims are called to dialogue, peace, and cooperation

Hinduism according to Nostra Aetate

Search for God/truth, spiritual and moral richness recognized.

• Hinduism represents a deep spiritual quest

• It engages ultimate questions about existence and suffering

• It uses meditation, asceticism, and philosophy to seek the divine

• Catholics are called to respect, dialogue, and discern truth and holiness within it

Buddhism according to Nostra Aetate

Liberation from suffering, inner life, ethical and spiritual excellence.

• Buddhism offers a serious response to suffering

• It proposes liberation through moral and spiritual discipline

• Its practices deserve respectful attention

• Catholics are called to dialogue and discern truth and holiness within it

Pope John XXIII

Inaugurating a new era in the Roman Catholic Church by convoking the Second Vatican Council.

Ecumenical councils

Worldwide gatherings of church authorities to define church doctrine and resolve major issues.

Hinduism

World's oldest literate religion; c. 3,000 BCE.

Krishna Consciousness

Introduced to US & Western cultures in the 70s, popularizing Hinduism.

• The highest purpose of life is loving, personal devotion to Krishna.

• Krishna is the Supreme Person

• The soul’s purpose is loving devotion

• Chanting and service awaken divine love

• Liberation comes through relationship, not abstraction

Kama

Pursuit of pleasure; tends towards self-centred desire and eventually proves unfulfilling.

• pleasure, enjoyment, love

Artha

Pursuit of wealth, fame, power; also self-centred desire and eventually proves unfulfilling.

• wealth, livelihood, power, security

Dharma

Pursuit Call to Service; represents renunciation of selfish desires.

• Means “that which upholds”

• Links cosmic order, ethics, and duty

• Varies by context and tradition

• Central to Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism

Moksha

Liberation or release of the individual self, atman, from the bondage of samsara; salvation; one of the four goals of life.

The Vedas

The most sacred and ancient scriptures of Hinduism, revered as divine revelations of knowledge.

• Are the earliest Hindu scriptures

• Consist of four collections

• Move from ritual to philosophy

• Culminate in the Upaniṣads

Upanishads

A collection of over two hundred texts composed between 900 and 200 B.C that provides philosophical commentary on the Vedas.

• philosophical inquiry (Self, Brahman)

Mahabharata

Epic poem detailing the Kurushetra War between the Pandavas and Kauravas, exploring themes of duty, righteousness, and morality.

Bhagavad Gita

A short section of the epic poem Mahabharata where Krishna teaches Arjuna about bhakti marga and other ways to God.

Advaita Vedanta

Hindu philosopher Shankara developed the key idea of advaita: 'not two/not one' (nondualism).

• Teaches non-duality

• Identifies Self with Brahman

• Sees separation as ignorance

• Seeks liberation through knowledge

atman

• The true Self

• Not body, mind, or ego

• Ever-present awareness

Samsara

The wheel of rebirth, suffering, & reincarnation; the this-worldly realm in which rebirth occurs.

Karma

The moral law of cause and effect of actions; determines the nature of one's reincarnation.

Caste System

A social hierarchy supported by the doctrines of karma and dharma.

Brahmin

The highest of the four classes of the caste system, traditionally made up of priests.

• priests, teachers

Kshatriya

The second of the four classes of the caste system, traditionally made up of warriors and administrators.

• rulers, warriors

Vaishya

The third of the four classes of the caste system, traditionally made up of producers, such as farmers, merchants, and artisans.

• merchants, farmers

Shudra

The lowest of the four classes of the caste system, traditionally made up of servants and labourers.

• workers, artisans, servants

Harijan

A term for 'Untouchables' in the caste system

• Means “children of God”

• Was Gandhi’s term for untouchables

• Intended as respectful, but now often rejected

• Dalit is the preferred modern term

Yoga

A system of Hindu philosophy and one approach with jhana marga, 'the path of knowledge,' seeking to free the eternal self from the bondage of personhood.

Jhana Yoga

Path of knowledge and study, of sacred texts, and application to life; emphasizes intellectual and philosophical inquiry.

• Is the yoga of knowledge

• Seeks realization of the true Self

• Uses inquiry and contemplation

• Leads to liberation through wisdom

Bhakti Yoga

Path of loving devotion and worship to God; emphasizes devotion, self-forgetting, and love.

• Is the yoga of devotion and love

• Dissolves ego through surrender

• Relies on grace as well as effort

• Leads to liberation through the heart

Karma Yoga

Path of service to others (social justice and helping the poor and marginalized); selfless action, where one performs duties without attachment to the results.

• Is the yoga of action

• Teaches non-attachment to results

• Purifies the mind through service

• Leads toward liberation

Raja Yoga

Path of meditation and control of the mind and body; aims for self-realization, inner peace, and spiritual liberation (moksha).

• Is the yoga of meditation and mind mastery

• Follows the eightfold path of Patañjali

• Aims at liberation (kaivalya)

• Emphasizes ethics, breath, and deep meditation

God = Brahma(n)

Monistic and theistic; characterized by one of the many Hindu deities.

• if God means absolute source of being

• Hindu traditions differ on whether the ultimate is impersonal, personal, or both

Trimurti

The triple deity, representing creation (Brahma), preservation (Vishnu), and destruction (Shiva).

Brahma

The eternal essence of reality and the source of the universe, beyond the reach of human perception and thought.

Vishnu

Preserver and protector god.

Shiva

God of destruction and transformation.

Ganesha

God of prosperity and remover of obstacles.

• Is the remover of obstacles

• Lord of beginnings

• Symbol of wisdom and clarity

• Embodiment of spiritual intelligence

Krishna

Divine incarnation of Lord Vishnu; one of many incarnations.

• Is a major Hindu deity and avatar of Vishnu

• Teaches devotion, duty, and wisdom

• Embodies divine joy and love

• Central to the Bhagavad Gītā and Bhakti traditions

Avatar

An incarnation or living embodiment of a deity, usually of Vishnu, sent to earth to accomplish a divine purpose.

Brahman

The ultimate reality in Hinduism, expressed through multiple gods.

Murtis

A sacred image of God.

Mandir

A public or private shrine.

Kumbh Mela

A bathing ceremony that removes bad karma and purifies in the water.

Pilgrimage

A journey people take to get closer to God.

Holi

A festival marking the start of spring and celebrating new life; symbolizes good overcoming evil.

Diwali

The Hindu festival of light representing light over darkness; celebrated as the new Hindu year in Autumn.

Siddhartha Gautama

A prince and Brahmin born in the 7th Century BC in present-day Nepal.

The Buddha

Siddhartha Gautama and all who have attained perfect enlightenment.

• Was a historical human being

• Awakened to the end of suffering

• Taught the Middle Way

• Founded Buddhism as a path, not a creed

Four Passing Sights

A sick man

an old man

a corpse

a holy man seeking enlightenment —> these awakened compassion within Siddhartha.

Ascetic

• Practices self-discipline and simplicity

• Reduces pleasure to gain insight or holiness

• Found across religions

• Effective when balanced—not extreme

Enlightenment

Awakening from ignorance and attachment, resulting in freedom from suffering.

Nirvana

• Is the end of suffering

• Extinguishes craving and ignorance

• Is not a place or god

• Is liberation here and now

The Middle Way

The path to enlightenment; moderation in all things.

The Three Jewels

The Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha; each required to support the Buddhist in their journey.

• The Buddha (the awakened one)

• The Dharma (the truth and path)

• The Sangha (the community)

Four Noble Truths

• Life involves suffering

• Suffering comes from craving

• Suffering can end

• There is a path to end it (Noble Eightfold Path)

Dukkha

• Is pervasive unsatisfactoriness

• Comes from craving and clinging

• Is tied to impermanence and non-self

• Can be ended through insight and practice

• suffering

Tanha

• Is craving or thirst

• Causes suffering

• Takes three forms

• Ends through insight and the Eightfold Path

• selfish desire

The Five Precepts

Never take life

Do not steal

Do not misuse sexual energy

Do not lie

Do not use intoxicants.

Eightfold Path

The path to cessation of suffering in Buddhism, consisting of Right understanding, Right Thoughts/Motivation, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Meditation.

Three Marks of Existence

Dukkha, Anicca, Anatta.

Anatta

One of the Three Marks of Existence, the Buddhist doctrine denying a permanent self.

• No fixed, unchanging self

• The “I” is a flowing process

• Insight into this reduces suffering

• Leads to freedom and compassion

Anicca

Impermanence: all things are in the process of change.

• Clinging causes suffering

• Seeing this clearly brings freedom

Mahayana Buddhism

The 'Great Raft', the largest sect made up of various other sects, where the ideal person is the Bodhisattva.

• Focuses on compassion for all beings

• Centers on the bodhisattva path

• Teaches emptiness and Buddha-nature

• Includes Zen, Pure Land, and Vajrayāna

Theravada Buddhism

The Way of the Elders, the oldest sect emphasizing the original teachings of Buddha, with the ideal figure being the Arhat.

• Focuses on personal awakening

• Uses the oldest Buddhist texts

• Emphasizes meditation and ethics

• Seeks liberation from suffering here and no

Vajrayana/Tibetan Buddhism

Led by Lamas, with the Dalai Lama as the head, believed to be the reincarnation of the Buddha.

• Is a tantric path within Mahāyāna

• Uses ritual, mantra, and visualization

• Requires a guru and ethical grounding

• Aims at full awakening in one lifetime

Arhat

Focuses on his own enlightenment, believing all will benefit from their meditations.

Bodhisattva

An enlightenment being who delays his/her own enlightenment until all other beings achieve nirvana.