Public Policy

What made the Greek city-states unique compared to other civilizations?

They had self-governing polities (poleis) with large middle classes, property-owning citizens, and civic participation. Unlike Egypt, Persia, or China, where most people were subjects or slaves, Greek citizens had rights to vote, speak, own property, and serve in juries and armies.

What contradiction did Alkidamas point out in Greece?

He exposed the tension between freedom (eleutheria) and slavery (douleia), declaring “Nature has made no man a slave.” His critique inspired Epaminondas to free the Spartan helots.

Why was self-critique important in Greek citizenship?

The essence of consensual government was constant introspection. Once self-critique ended, so did true citizenship.

What did it mean to be a Greek citizen?

Citizenship included voting, free speech, property inheritance, serving on juries, fighting in the phalanx, and being protected under the law. This legal independence allowed citizens to farm, trade, write, build, and create.

What was Aristotle’s view of the middle class in government?

He believed the middle class (mesoi) was the most stable and virtuous foundation of a state. A large middle class prevented domination by the rich or poor, creating the best political community.

How did Aristotle define the ideal state?

A state composed of equals and similars—mostly middle-class citizens—because they are secure, balanced, and not driven by greed or desperation.

What were Rome’s contributions to Western government?

Rome codified citizen rights and responsibilities into law, created systematic courts, and established checks and balances (dual assemblies, dual executives, ephors). Their laws formed the foundation for Western legal traditions.

How did citizenship evolve after Greece and Rome?

Over centuries (Middle Ages → Renaissance → Reformation → Enlightenment), rights expanded slowly and unevenly, but equality under the law gradually included more groups despite social and economic limits.

What happened to citizenship by the 21st century?

Citizenship expanded fully to include women, minorities, and the poor, but efforts to extend rights to immigrants, felons, and teenagers raised concerns about diluting privileges.

Why are democracies not guaranteed?

There is no rule that republics must exist forever. Failure often comes from internal complacency, not external threats.

Why can affluence and leisure be dangerous to citizenship?

Comfort and abundance can weaken civic responsibility more than poverty or hardship, leading to decline in active citizenship.

What is the modern critique of how Americans view the past?

Many blame past generations for being illiberal, but the real danger is present-day complacency. Instead of criticizing the dead for their struggles, citizens should recognize current responsibilities.