Lecture 6: Sociolinguistics: Language and Social variations

1. Social dialects 

• Regional dialects tend to concentrate on the speech of people in r______ areas. S_______ d_______ are mainly concerned with the speech of speakers in t______ and c______. 

• Two main groups used to define groups of speakers are "m_______ class" and "w________ class". 

• The terms "u______" and "l______" are used to further subdivide the groups, mainly on an economic basis. 

  • upper-middle-class speech

• Only certain features of language use are relevant in the analysis of social dialects: pr_____________, w_______, or st________ that are regularly used 

  • Examples: in Edinburgh, Scotland 

home: [herm] and [hom] 

ain't 

• In the analysis of social dialects, cl______ (working/middle) is treated as the social variable and the pronunciation or words as the l_________ variable.

rural, Social dialects, towns, cities, middle, working, upper, lower, pronunciation, words, structures, class, linguistic

2. Education and occupation 

• Although each of us has an individual way of speaking (________), we generally tend to sound like others with whom we share similar educational backgrounds and/or occupations.

  • For example: A particular profession uses special words or expressions that are difficult for others to understand (________) 

    • medical jargons: 

      • a.c.: before meals

• _________ ________: a feature of speech that marks the speaker as a member of a particular social group (pronunciation features.)

• Watch the following clip. Can you identify the common features of the Cockney speech in this clip?

• Common social markers in the English-speaking world:

  • Pronunciation of -ing: pronunciations represented by sittin' and drinkin' are typically associated with working-class speech.

  • "[h]-dropping": makes the words at and hat sound the same, associated with class and less education

idiolect, jargon, Social markers

3. Language and gender

• __________ words: 

  • There can be differences between the words used by men and women in a variety of languages. 

  • In many cases, words for men are treated as "n________" and words for women are "s_______ a_________". 

  • In terms of speech style: w_______ are more likely to use the more formal style.

Gendered, normal, special additions, women

3. Language and gender

• ________ _______

  • Women's speech is characterized by the use of _______ intonation at the end of statements, the more frequent use of hedges, and tag questions. These features seem to be ways of inviting ___________ with an idea rather than asserting it. 

  • Men tend to use more asse___________ forms, "strong" language, and direct speech acts, as opposed to women who prefer indirect speech acts.

Gendered speech, rising, agreement, assertive

3. Language and gender

• Gendered _________

  • Features of women's speech facilitate the ________ of turns, while the r_______ t____ s______ or "having the floor" is treated as the goal in men's interaction (men generally take l_______ t_______ at speaking & may be the only ones allowed to talk in many social contexts) . 

  • In cross-gender interaction, men are much more likely to in________ women. 

  • Women use more b__________ (the use of words - yeah, really? - or sounds - hmm, oh - by listeners while someone else is talking)

interaction, exchange, right to speak, longer turns, interrupt, back-channels

4. Speech style and style shifting

• Speech style: a social feature of language use. The most basic distinction is between formal use and informal use. 

• Formal style is when we pay more c_______ att_________ to how we're speaking, and informal style is when we pay l______ attention. 

• A change from one to the other by an individual is called s____-sh__________.

• _____________ : a way of explaining the direction in which certain individual change their speech (eg: formal to informal, informal to formal,…)

careful attention, less, style-shifting, Prestige

• Prestige: a way of explaining the d________ in which c_________ in______________ change their speech 

  • O_______ p_________: change to a form of speakers with h_______ s_______ st______

    • Speaking in a way seen as “correct” or “high status’. It is associated with education and the Middle / upper class

      • Example: pronouncing /r/, avoiding ain’t. 

    • ⇒ Explains why people shift toward “standard” speech.

  • C________ p________: the status of a speech style or feature as having p________ value, but which is "h_______ " or not valued si_________ among the larger community

    • Simpler explanation: People keep “non-standard” speech on purpose because it helps them belong to a group, even if outsiders think it’s “wrong.”

    • Why some people DON’T style-shift much?:Their way of speaking signals id________ & so__________. Changing it would mean sounding fake and distancing themselves from their group

direction, certain individuals, Overt prestige, higher social status, Covert prestige, positive, hidden, similarly, identity, solidarity

• S_________ a_________________: changing how you speak based on who you’re talking to.

  • C_____________ (getting closer)

    • You adjust your speech to match the listener

    • Reduces social distance Eg:

      • To friend: “Gizza look”

      • To friend’s mother: Could I have a look, Mrs. Hall?

        • Goal: politeness, friendliness

  • D______________ (pulling away)

    • You speak more differently to emphasize distance. Eg:

      • Teacher: If I can do it, you can too

      • Teenager: I cannae dae it so

        • Goal: “We are NOT the same.”

Speech accommodation, Convergence, Divergence

• __________: language style used in a specific context. Types:

  • Religious: Ye shall be blessed

  • Legal: The plaintiff

  • Academic: inflectional suffix

    • Not about class — about situation and topic

• __________: technical words used by insiders. Eg:

  • Law: plaintiff

  • Linguistics: suffix

  • Medicine: long technical drug names

    • Functions:

      • Helps experts communicate

      • Excludes outsiders

Register, Jargon

• _________, taboo words & social class:

  • Taboo words = swear words

  • Used differently by groups

    • Study findings:

      • Lower-status teens: swear freely (boys & girls)

      • Higher-status teens:

        • Boys swear only with boys

        • Girls avoid taboo words

      • Social class patterns start early (adolescence)

Slang