topic 3 - The learning approach

assumptions of learning approach

• behaviour is learned from experience not inherited

• only observable behaviour should be studied scientifically

• learning occurs through association , reinforcement and observation

• all behaviour is learned and all we have at birth is the capacity to learn

• a person is the product of their environment and born a blank state - tabula rasa

• nurture over nature

• also argues that in order for psychology to be scientific it should focus on observable behaviour which can be objectively measured - rather than things like cognitive processes which can only be inferred.

learning approach - we learn behaviour in 3 ways

C - classical conditioning

I - imitation ( social learning theory)

A - association

The behaviourist approach - Pavlov and classical conditioning

• behaviourist approach

• behaviour should be observable and measurable - moving away from Wundt

• Animal behaviour is compared to humans

• All behaviour is learned from the environment

• tabula rasa - we are all born as a blank slate with no preconceived ideas - environment shapes our behaviour

• Behaviour is learned through the environment by focusing on stimulus and response

• classical conditioning

• Pavlov’s Research (1927)

  Aim:

  To investigate how dogs learn to associate a neutral stimulus with a reflex response (salivation) - measure dogs salivation

  Method:

  Dogs were presented with food (unconditioned stimulus, UCS) that naturally caused salivation (unconditioned response, UCR).

  • Pavlov introduced a neutral stimulus (NS), such as the sound of a bell, before presenting the food.

  • This pairing was repeated several times.

  Results:

  Eventually, the bell alone (now a conditioned stimulus, CS) caused the dogs to salivate (conditioned response, CR).

  Conclusion:

  Learning occurs through association: a neutral stimulus can elicit a response if it is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

• When 2 stimuli are paired together, they become associated with one another.

• neutral stimulus (food) + unconditioned stimulus (dogs saliva automatically happens) = unconditioned response (salivation)

• after lots of repeated pairings

• conditioned stimulus (bell)  ——- conditioned response ( salivating without any food present)

• Processes of Classical Conditioning

  1. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS):

     • A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response.

     • Example: Food → Salivation

  2. Unconditioned Response (UCR):

     • The natural, automatic response to the UCS.

     • Example: Salivation in response to food

  3. Neutral Stimulus (NS):

     • A stimulus that initially does not produce the response.

     • Example: Bell → no salivation initially

  4. Conditioning / Association:

     • Repeatedly pairing the NS with the UCS so that the NS begins to trigger the response.

     • Example: Bell + Food → Salivation

  5. Conditioned Stimulus (CS):

     • The previously neutral stimulus that now triggers a learned response.

     • Example: Bell alone → Salivation

  6. Conditioned Response (CR):

     • The learned response to the CS.

     • Example: Salivation in response to bell

key terms linked to Pavlov’s research: - use this in ao2 and when describing Pavlov’s research in AO1

• extinction - the gradual weakening of a conditioned response - if the conditioned stimulus continues to be presented but the real unconditioned stimulus ( salivating when seeing FOOD) never appears, the association eventually weakens and becomes extinct ( example - if the bell is continually presented with no food, salivation eventually disappears - behaviour has become extinguished)

• spontaneous recovery - if a conditioned response is not reinforced, it becomes extinguished - but if there is a sudden display of behaviour that was thought to be extinct ( dog suddenly salivates to the sound of the bell) - this is still less strong than the original response

• discrimination - the ability to distinguish between similar stimuli and only respond to the conditioned one ( the dog only salivates to the sound of a specific bell tone not others) - sound becomes too different from the original bell sound, so no salivation occurs.

• generalisation - where the conditioned stimulus (bell) could be generalised to other sounds - the volume or tone could change and still produce salivation

• One-trial learning - when conditioning occurs immediately after one trial only - food poisoning - you won’t have that specific food again

another example of classical conditioning

• learning to feel sick when seeing the KFC sign

• neutral stimulus (KFC sign) - no response as it’s neutral

• unconditioned stimulus ( food poisoning) - unconditioned response ( feeling sick)

• KFC sign- food poisoning — feeling sick

• conditioned stimulus (KFC sign) — conditioned response (feeling sick)

Skinners research - operant conditioning - consequences

• learning occurs through the consequences of behaviour

• Behaviour that is reinforced is more likely to be repeated, while behaviour that is punished is less likely to occur.

skinner box (study)

• animal is placed in the box with no prior training

• animal accidentally presses the lever and receives a food pellet (positive reinforcement)

• overtime the animal learns to press the lever deliberately to get the food

• there was various conditions - positive reinforcement - pull lever - food / other variation of study - negative reinforcement - In one version, the floor of the box delivered a mild electric shock.

• The rat could press the lever to stop or avoid the shock → this was negative reinforcement (removing something unpleasant).

• In another version, pressing the lever might trigger a shock instead of food → this was punishment (adding something unpleasant to decrease behaviour).

• Food pellet = positive reinforcement

• Stopping a shock = negative reinforcement

• Giving a shock = punishment

primary and secondary reinforcers

• consequences given for desired behaviours either primary or secondary reinforcers

• primary reinforcers - consequences that satisfy a biological need and are naturally reinforcing - food , water , warmth and sleep. 

• These are naturally rewarding – we don’t need to learn that they are good.

• They satisfy basic biological needs (linked to survival).

• Examples: food, water, warmth, shelter, sleep, sex.

• A rat pressing a lever for food → food is the primary reinforcer.

• secondary reinforcers - consequences that have no biological value on their own but become reinforcing through association with primary reinforcers - money , praise , clicker used in dog training

• These are not naturally rewarding but become reinforcing because they are associated with primary reinforcers.

• They are learned reinforcers.

• Examples: money, praise, tokens, grades. (We like money not because paper itself is rewarding, but because we can use it to buy food, warmth, shelter = primary reinforcers).

• A child gets a gold star sticker for good behaviour → sticker is the secondary reinforcer (because it might later lead to praise, privileges, or even treats).

👉 Key Difference:

• Primary = unlearned, biological need.

• Secondary = learned, linked to a primary reinforcer.

types of reinforcement

• reinforcement - increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated

• positive reinforcement - increasing the frequency of a desired behavior by giving a pleasant consequence ( giving something)

• Example - Jimmy completes his homework - the teacher praises him by giving him a sticker

• In Skinner’s research, positive reinforcement was shown through the rat pressing a lever and receiving food.

  • Positive reinforcement = adding something pleasant to increase behavior.

  • In the Skinner box:

    • Every time the rat pressed the lever, it was given a food pellet (a reward).

    • The rat learned to repeat the lever-pressing behaviour more frequently because it led to a positive outcome.

• negative reinforcement - increasing the frequency of a desired behaviour by removing something unpleasant - behaviour more likely to be repeated

• example - jimmy completes his homework - no detention at lunch

• Example: Rat presses lever → stops a mild electric shock (or turns off loud noise).

• Effect: Rat presses lever more often because it avoids/escapes something unpleasant.

types of punishment

• punishment - decreasing the frequency of desired behaviour by giving an unpleasant consequence

  • Example: In some versions of the Skinner box, if the rat pressed the lever, it received a mild electric shock.

  • Effect: The rat pressed the lever less often because the consequence was unpleasant. - punishments WEAKEN behaviour

• positive punishment - Something is added after a behaviour to make it less likely to happen again.

• "Positive" = adding, not "good".

• Example:

  • Child misbehaves → gets shouted at.

  • Touch a hot stove → feel pain.

• ✅ Adding an unpleasant consequence to reduce behaviour.

• negative punishment - Something is taken away after a behaviour to make it less likely to happen again.

• "Negative" = removing, not "bad".

• Example:

  • Teen misses curfew → parents take away their phone.

  • Child is naughty → loses playtime.

• ✅ Removing something pleasant to reduce behaviour.

schedules of reinforcement

• Rather than awarding humans and animals every time they show desired behaviours a more effective strategy would be to use partial reinforcement where they do not receive a reward every time - which impacts how resistant a behaviour is to being extinguished

• continuous reinforcement - when a behaviour is reinforced every single time it occurs

• Effect:

  • Very fast learning because the link between behaviour and reward is obvious.

  • But also fast extinction and less of an impact

• partial reinforcement - when behaviour is only reinforced some of the time, not every time it occurs - makes behaviour more resistant to extinction than continuous reinforcement.

• Example: A rat only gets food after some lever presses (maybe every 3rd time, or randomly).

• Effect:

  • Slower learning because the link is less clear.

  • But behaviour is much more resistant to extinction (the rat keeps pressing because it might get food).

4 schedules of partial reinforcement:

• ratio - numbers (number of responses)

• fixed - stays the same

• variable - does not stay the same

• interval - amount of time

• Fixed ratio schedule - reinforcement is given after a fixed number of responses/behaviours have occurred 

• example - the rat must press the lever 3 times before the food pellet is released into the box

• variable ratio schedule - reinforcement given after a varying number of responses/behaviour has occurred, the number required changes after each reward is given

• example - food pellet released after the lever is pressed 3 times, then after 6 presses, then after 8 presses

• fixed interval schedule - reinforcement is given after a fixed amount of time elapses following the behaviour is being performed 

• behaviour pattern - responses are slow after reinforcement but increase as the time for reward gets closer

• ( time required stays the same)

• example - a worker gets paid every Friday as long as they’ve worked during the week- time changes after each reward is given

• variable interval schedule- reinforcement is given after a behavior has been performed at least once during that period

• example - checking your phone for a message - you never know when one will come

• behaviour pattern - produces steady and consistent responding because the person doesn’t know when the next reward will come.

thorndike’s law of effect

• behaviourism operant conditioning follows the principles of thorndike’s law

• any behaviour that is rewarded is likely to be repeated

• If a behaviour is punished, it becomes weaker and less likely to happen again in the same situation.

• Over time, this can lead to extinction, which means the behaviour completely stops.

• Extinction happens when a behaviour that was once reinforced no longer gets any reinforcement, so the person (or animal) eventually stops doing it.

👉 Example: If a child throws a tantrum and usually gets attention (reinforcement), but then the parents stop giving attention, the tantrums will eventually extinguish (stop).

stimulus - generalisation

• Stimulus generalisation happens when a behaviour that has been conditioned is also shown in response to similar stimuli, not just the original one.

• Example: In Pavlov’s experiment, dogs learned to salivate when they heard a bell (conditioned stimulus). If they later salivated to a different sound (like a buzzer or chime) that was similar to the bell, that’s stimulus generalisation.

• In simple terms: the behaviour “spreads” to things that are alike.

• example answer - Stimulus generalisation occurs when a conditioned response is shown to similar stimuli to the original conditioned stimulus. For example, in Pavlov’s research, dogs were conditioned to salivate to the sound of a bell, but they sometimes also salivated to similar sounds, such as a buzzer or chime. This shows that the learned response can spread to other, related stimuli.

one trial learning

• Normally in classical conditioning, you need to repeat the pairing of things (like bell + food) many times before learning happens.

• But with one-trial learning, you only need one experience for learning to stick.

• One-trial learning is when an association is formed after just one pairing of stimuli. For example, taste aversion occurs if someone eats a food and becomes ill; they may avoid that food in the future, showing that learning can happen in a single trial.

spontaneous recovery

• behaviour that is thought to be extinct suddenly appears again after a short period of time

• After extinction, a conditioned response (CR) seems to have disappeared.

• But later, the CR can suddenly reappear when the conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented again — this is spontaneous recovery.

• The response usually isn’t as strong as before, but it shows the learning wasn’t completely lost.

👉 Example: If Pavlov’s dogs stop salivating to the bell (extinction), and then a few days later hear the bell again, they may suddenly start salivating — even though no food had been given during extinction.

evaluation of behaviourist approach in learning approach

• ✅ Strength 1: Research support from Skinner (1938)

  • Point: A strength of the behaviourist approach is that it is supported by scientific research.

  • Evidence: Skinner’s experiments with rats and pigeons demonstrated that behaviour can be learned through reinforcement and punishment.

  • Explain: This shows that behaviour is shaped by its consequences, supporting the behaviourist claim that learning is the result of conditioning.

  • Link: Therefore, Skinner’s research gives the behaviourist approach strong empirical validity.

✅ Strength 2: Research support from Pavlov (1927) (classical conditioning)

• Point: Another strength is further research support from Pavlov.

• Evidence: Pavlov’s study on dogs showed that they could learn to salivate (CR) at the sound of a bell (CS) when it was repeatedly paired with food (UCS).

• Explain: This provides evidence for classical conditioning as a key learning process.

• Link: Therefore, this supports the behaviourist view that behaviour is learned through associations in the environment.

✅ Point: A strength of operant conditioning is that it is highly effective in encouraging positive behaviours in real-world settings.

Evidence: For instance, in schools teachers use positive reinforcement, such as praise and rewards, to encourage good behaviour and academic performance.

Explain: These strategies are grounded in Skinner’s theory that behaviour followed by reinforcement is more likely to be repeated. The success of operant conditioning in structured environments like classrooms highlights its strong practical value.

Link: Therefore, operant conditioning is not only supported by laboratory findings but also demonstrates clear effectiveness in influencing real-world human behaviour.

❌Point: A limitation of the behaviourist approach is that much of its research was conducted on non-human animals.

Evidence: For example, Skinner tested operant conditioning principles using rats and pigeons in controlled box experiments.

Explain: Although useful, this limits generalisability because animal learning may not fully reflect the complexity of human behaviour, which involves higher cognitive processes like decision-making and emotions.

Link: Therefore, relying heavily on animal studies reduces the validity of the behaviourist explanation of human behaviour.

❌Point: A limitation of behaviourism is that it takes a deterministic view of human behaviour.

Evidence: Operant conditioning suggests that all behaviour is shaped and controlled by external reinforcement or punishment, as seen in Skinner’s experiments where animals learned behaviours purely through consequences.

Explain: This implies that individuals have little control over their actions and are simply reacting to environmental stimuli, ignoring conscious choice or internal decision-making.

Link: Therefore, behaviourism presents a deterministic explanation of human behaviour, limiting its ability to account for free will and personal responsibility.

Social learning theory - The learning approach

• we learn by the imitation of others in a social context (our role models)- suggests another way in which we learn

• we watch our models , rehearse their actions and consider how we would replicate their behaviours

• involves cognitive processes ( learning through observation)

key terms of social learning theory

• imitation - simply copying a behaviour but not taking on the attitudes and beliefs of the individual you are copying

• identification - identifying with someone who you look up to usually a significant person in the individuals life ( celebrity , role model , teacher)

• modelling - modelling behaviour - role model shows you how to behave - demonstration

• vicarious reinforcement - occurs when an individual observes a role model being rewarded for a behaviour - they are then motivated to imitate this behaviour in the hope of receiving a similar rewarding consequence

• ( reinforcement which is not directly experienced by us but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced or punished for a behaviour)

• vicarious punishment - someone observes another person being punished for a behaviour and as a result is less likely to imitate that behaviour

mediational processes in social learning theory (ARRM) - for behaviour to be imitated

• mediational cognitive processes - cognitive factors (our thoughts) that influence learning that comes between stimulus and response

• attention - you have to be paying close attention to the behaviour to copy it

• retention - you have to have a good enough memory to be able to retain what you see

• reproduction - you have to physically be able to repeat the behaviour

• motivation - you have to really want to do it

• Example - you see a video of someone playing guitar, and you really want to learn this too

• attention - you pay close attention to where they are holding the guitar and where they are placing their fingers on the strings

• retention - remembering how they were holding it and where they placed their fingers

• reproduction - you pull out the guitar yourself and give it a go

• motivation - you would love to be able to play your favourite song for yourself, and you think about wanting to make videos like them too

Bandura - key study

The environment is key to learning

Aim - Bandura aimed to see whether aggression could be modelled to younger children by an adult role model - he also aimed to see whether children would be more likely to imitate same sex models

• sample - 72 children from a local nursery

• aged between 3-5.5 years

• 36 boys and 36 girls

• 3 conditions with 24 in each, split 12 boys and girls

• matched pairs design - each child was rated by the nursery teacher on how aggressive their behaviour typically was, and matched the child with the same level of aggression

• room 1 - condition 1 - observing aggressive adult models

• children are put in a room by the investigator with different toys for them to play with

• such as designing pictures with stickers etc

• once the child settled into the activity adult model was brought in the room and in the opposite corner was a range of different toys, such as a Bobo Doll, a mallet etc.

• For each condition, half children observed a model of the same sex and the other half observed a model of the opposite sex

• adult model behaved in aggressive ways

• tipped Bobo Doll on its side and punched it in the nose, and it doll on the a head with the mallet

• verbally aggressive saying kick him and pow

• adult behaved this way for 10 minutes

condition 2 - observing a non-aggressive model

• The adult played with toys, but didn’t use any aggressive behaviour that was in condition 1

• adult did this for 10 minutes

condition 3 - control group

• did not observe any adult models

• No room one and no observation

• just went straight into room 2 to play with the toys

condition 1 and 2:

• After the kids observed the adult models, they were asked to leave the room

• they waited in a waiting room where there were highly attractive toys

• in the waiting rooms, they experienced ( mild aggression arousal)

• experimenter told the children the toys were to be played with

• Children are angry because of this

• The experimenter took them to the second room, could play with any of the toys in that room, 20 minutes, and observed through a one-way mirror

• Findings :

• Condition 1 - The aggressive model child did exactly what they saw the model do - aggressive behaviour

• children carried out other aggressive acts that the models didn’t do

• condition 2 - observed passive and non-aggressive models / no models

• condition 3 - powerful influence in observing adult models - implications are serious - children can learn from watching aggressive behaviour

• sex of adult model - male participants - more physical and verbal aggression, and engaged in more aggressive gun play - compared to females observing male models

• findings - Children who observed he aggressive model imitated more aggressive responses than those in the non-aggressive or control groups

• the girls in the aggressive model condition also showed more physical aggressive responses if the model was male, but more verbal aggressive responses if the model was female

• boys were more likely to imitate same sex models than girls - girls imitating same sex models is not strong

• boys imitated more physically aggressive acts than girls - little difference in the verbal aggression between boys and girls

Study 2 - bandura et al

• wanted to investigate the extent to which aggression observed in films will be imitated

• condition 1 - real-life aggressive model - same as 1st study

• condition 2 - film of an aggressive model - children observe the model on film behaving aggressively

• condition 3 - cartoon film aggression - cartoon of a cat carrying out the same aggressive behaviours as the model

• con 1/2/3 children went to the waiting room - mild aggression arousal, and then taken to the 2nd room

• condition 4 - control group - no aggressive model - just went straight to the second room - filled with toys and observed

• played for 20 minutes and the behaviour was reported

• Findings - mean number of aggressive behaviours

  condition 3 - 99%

  condition 4 - 54%

• aggressive behaviour is learned through human cartoons

observing a cartoon has the same impact as seeing real life

• Conclusion - the extent to which TV influences shaping behaviour

• sex of model - boys, when observing females - sit on the doll, not punch

• And boys, when observing - punch dolls

• sex has an impact on learning observed behaviour

study 3 - bandura 3

• Each child is taken to the room with the TV

• adult - put on the TV programme of an adult behaving aggressively

• of an adult behaving aggressively

• condition 1 in the film - the model was rewarded for behaviour with sweets and told they are a strong champion

• condition 2 - model punished adult arrived and called big bunny - model backed away, tripped, and fell, and other models sat on dolls and punished him

• Conditions 1 and 2, children went to the surprise room after the film ended

• condition 3 - watched the same video, not rewarded or punished

• findings: Children in reward and control conditions initiated more aggressive actions than the other children in condition 2

• less likely to imitate behaviour they had seen punished

• observing consequences or behaviour

Banduras evaluation

• ✅ Point: A strength of Bandura’s study is that the sample was well balanced between males and females.
  📖 Evidence: The study used 72 children, with an equal split of 36 boys and 36 girls.
  🔎 Explain: This avoids the research being androcentric (only focused on males) or gynocentric (only focused on females), meaning the findings are more representative of both genders.
  📌 Link: Therefore, the study has greater population validity, as the results about observational learning can be applied more confidently to both boys and girls.

• ✅ Point: A strength of Bandura’s research is its huge practical applications.
  📖 Evidence: The findings show that children imitate aggressive behaviour they observe, especially from role models.
  🔎 Explain: This can be used to educate parents and teachers about the negative impact of children witnessing aggression, such as arguments at home or domestic violence. It also highlights the importance of providing positive role models and strategies to reduce harm.
  📌 Link: Therefore, Bandura’s study has real-world value, as it can help guide parenting practices and interventions to reduce the spread of aggressive behaviour in children.

• ❌ Point: A limitation of Bandura’s study is that it was unethical.
  📖 Evidence: The study involved 3–6-year-old children being taught to behave aggressively toward the Bobo doll.
  🔎 Explain: This could have caused long-term psychological effects, as the children were exposed to aggressive role models and may have learned behaviours they would not normally perform.
  📌 Link: Therefore, while the study provided valuable insights into observational learning, it raises serious ethical concerns about exposing young children to aggression.

• ❌ Point: A limitation of Bandura’s study is its low ecological validity.
  📖 Evidence: The children were observed hitting a Bobo doll in an artificial laboratory setting, which does not reflect real-life situations of aggression.
  🔎 Explain: This means the behaviour may not accurately represent how children act in natural environments, such as at home or in school, because they might behave differently when not being observed.
  📌 Link: Therefore, the findings may not fully generalise to real-world aggression, limiting the study’s practical applicability.

evaluations for social learning theory

• ✅ Point: A strength of Social Learning Theory is its practical applications in real life.

  📖 Evidence: SLT can explain behaviours such as addictions, where individuals imitate role models who smoke or drink and appear to gain rewards or social approval. For example, seeing a celebrity being praised for drinking alcohol may encourage imitation.

  🔎 Explain: Observing these behaviours being rewarded provides a clear reason for the individual to imitate the behaviour, showing how SLT can predict real-world actions.

  📌 Link: Therefore, SLT has strong practical value, as it helps us understand, prevent, or intervene in behaviours like substance abuse, demonstrating its usefulness beyond the lab.

• ✅ Point: A strength of Social Learning Theory is that it is supported by research evidence.
  📖 Evidence: Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961) showed that children who observed an adult behaving aggressively toward a Bobo doll were more likely to imitate that aggressive behaviour than children who observed a non-aggressive model.
  🔎 Explain: This demonstrates vicarious learning, where individuals learn behaviour by observing others being rewarded or punished, supporting the SLT claim that learning can occur without direct reinforcement.
  📌 Link: Therefore, Bandura’s study provides strong empirical support for the key principles of SLT, showing that observational learning is a real and measurable process.

• ❌ Point: A limitation of Social Learning Theory is that it relies heavily on evidence from laboratory studies.
  📖 Evidence: Bandura’s Bobo doll experiments were conducted in highly controlled lab settings, where children were observed hitting a doll rather than interacting in a natural environment.
  🔎 Explain: This means the behaviour observed may not reflect how children act in real-life situations, as they might behave differently when not being watched or when interacting with real people.
  📌 Link: Therefore, the findings may lack ecological validity, limiting how well SLT can explain real-world behaviour.

• ❌ Point: A limitation of Social Learning Theory is that it underestimates the role of cognitive processes in learning and behaviour.
  📖 Evidence: Bandura highlighted that attention and motivation are important for whether an observed behaviour is imitated, showing that internal processes matter.
  🔎 Explain: SLT mainly states that individuals just observe and imitate without considering how people actively process information, evaluate consequences, or apply past experiences. It does not fully explore how complex cognitive processes, such as memory, reasoning, and decision-making, influence whether a behaviour is learned or repeated.
  📌 Link: Therefore, SLT may oversimplify learning by focusing mainly on observation and imitation, limiting its ability to explain all aspects of human behaviour.