AP Psychology Unit 1

Nature versus nurture issue

Arguing which plays a greater role in psychological traits or behaviors - genes and heredity or the environment.

Nature (heredity)

refers to genetic or predisposed characteristics that influence physical, behavioral, and mental traits and processes

Nurtiture (environment)

Refers to the external factors hat one experiences; such as family interactions or education.

Evolutionary perspective

Explores how natural selection affects the expression of behavior and mental processes to increase survival and reproductive success.

Natural selection

The principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to the succeeding generations.

Heredity

The genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring.

Environment

Ever nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us.

Eugenics

The selection of desired heritable characteristics in order to improve future characteristics, typically in reference to humans.

Maturation

Refers to the biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience. It encompasses physical, cognitive, and social-emotional development. Essentially, it's about how our bodies and minds develop naturally, following a specific sequence, regardless of outside influences.

Twin studies

A key research method used to investigate the relative influences of identical (monozygotic) twins, who share 100% of their genes, with fraternal (dizygotic) twins, who share about 50%, to understand how much a trait is influenced by genes versus environment.

Family studies

A method used to investigate the influence of genetics and environment on traits and behaviors by examining how characteristics run in families across generations. They help assess whether certain traits or disorders are familial, meaning they are passed down through generations, and if so, to what extent.

Adoption Studies

Explore the influence of heredity and environment on traits by comparing adoptive children to their adoptive and biological parents. These studies help psychologists understand the relative contributions of genes and upbringing in shaping development, particularrly in areas like personality and intelligence.

Epigenetics

The study of the molecular mechanisms by which environments can influence genetic expression (without a DNA change).

Central nervous system (CNS)

Brain and spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Sensory and motor neurons that connect to the brain and spinal cord.

Autonomic nervous system

Controls involuntary functions such as heartbeat, digestion, breathing, etc.

Sympathetic nervous system

Fight or flight response; Automatically accelerates heart rate, breathing, dialates pupils, slows down digestion.

Parasympathetic

Rest and digest; Automatically slows the body down after a stressful event.

Somatic nervous system

Controls voluntary functions

Afferent nerves

Sensory neurons

Efferent nerves

Motor neurons

Interneurons

Neurons in the brain and spinal cord that serve as an intermediary between sensoy and motor neurons; carry info around the brain for processing.

Reflexes

Automatic responses to stimuli; sensory neurons take info up through spine to the brain. Some reactions occur when sensory neurons reach just the spinal cord.

Enteric Nervous System

Directly controls the gastrointestinal track, pancreas, and gallbladder; contains efferent, afferent, and interneurons.

Neurons

Nerve cells

Soma/Cell Body

Contains nucleus & DNA

Dendrites

Receives signals from other neurons.

Axon

Carry signals from one end to the other

Myelin Sheath

Insulates & protects axon and can increase speed.

Axon terminals/terminal buttons

Send signals to the next neuron.

Schwann cells

Produce myelin for the myelin sheath

Nodes of Ranvier

The spaces between schwann cells

Glial cells (glia)

Support cells for the nervous system, providing extra protection and nourishment to neurons. If nerve cells are queen bees, glial cells are the worker bees.

Resting potential

The ions are aligned or polarized

Absolute threshold

Minimum stimulation needed to trigger a neural impulse.

Action potential

When firing an impulse, a neuron is active and ions are exchanged, the ions are scambled depolarized. For action potential to happen, the excitatory impules must outnumber the inhibitory ones.

All-or-Nothing Law/Response

A neuron's reaction of firing or not firing is not determined by the strength of stimulation, as long as the threshold is met.

Refractory period

Before a neuron can fire again, the ions need to return to their original position, or repolarized. This is a required brief firing between firings.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical nessengers

Synapse

Where neurotransmitters are released, a small space between neurons.

Reuptake

Once the conversion is complete, the neurotransmitters are released by the neurons and travel back across the synapse to be reabsorbed by the axon terminals.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Enables muscle function, learning, and memory.

Undersupply linked to Alzheimers.

Oversupply linked to paralysis.

Dopamine

Influences voluntary movement, learning, attention, and emotion.

Undersupply linked to Parkinsons

Oversupply linked to schizophrenia

Serotonin

Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal.

Undersupply linked to depression.

Norepinephrine

Helps control alertness and arousal.

Undersupply linked to depression.

Oversupply linked to anxiety/mania.

GABA

Inhibitory neurotransmitter, natural tranquilizer, involved in calming you down.

Undersupply linnked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia.

Glutamate

Excitatory neurotransmitter, involved in memory.

Undersupply linked to concentration problems.

Oversupply linked to seizures and migraines.

Endorphins

Influence the perception of pain and pleasure.

Undersupply linked to depression.

Oversupply can make people anxious/wired.

Substance P

Sensory neurotransmitter that helps you perceive pain; involved in inflammation after an injury or infection; found in hypothalamus and other areas of the brain.

Can facilitate epileptic activity and increase susceptibility to seizures.

Agonist

Drugs that either increase/mimic a neurotransmitter's action.

Antagonist

Drugs that block receptor sites.

Reuptake inhibitors

Block the reuptake process, leaving the drug/neurotransmitter in the synaptic gap longer.

Hormones

The chemical messengers of the endorine system.

Thyroid gland

Affects metabolism

Parathyroids

Help regulate level of calcium in the blood.

Testis

Secretes male sex hormones

Hypothatalmus

Brain region controlling the pituitary gland.

Ardenal glands

Help trigger the fight or flight response.

Pancreas

Regulates the level of sugar in the blood.

Pituitary gland

Secretes many different hormones, some of which affect other glands.

Ovary

Secretes female sex hormones.

Adrenaline

Released by ardenal glands.

Prepare body for emergencies - fight or flight response.

Oxytocin

Released by pituitary glland.

Facilitate lactation and improve relationships - bonding hormone.

Cortisol

Released by ardenal glands.

MMaintain homeostasis - stress hormone.

Leptin

A hormone that helps regulate body weight and energy balance. It's produced by fat cells and travels to the brain to signal how much energy is stored in the body.

Melatonin

A hormone in your body that plays a role in seep. The production and release of melatonin in the bain is connected to the time of day, increasing when it's dark and decreasing when it's light. Melatonin production declines with age.

Ghrelin

A hormone that signals the brain to eat when the stomach is empty. It's also known as the "hunger homone."

Multipe Scelrosis (MS)

A long-lasting, chronic disease of the central nervous system. The body attacks itself by mistake; it's thought to be an autoimmune disorder.

With MS, the immune system attacks myelin, destroying it in many areas. The loss of myelin forms scar tissue called scerosis. When nerves are damaged in this way, they can't conduct electrical impulses normally to and from the brain.

Myasthenia Gravis (MG)

A chronic autoimmune disease that causes muscle weakness. It occurs when the body's immune system attacks the receptors in muscles that receive nerve impulses. This prevents the muscles from contracting properly.

It commonly affects the muscles that control the eyes and eyelids, facial expressions, chewing, swallowing, and speaking, but it can affect most parts of the body.

Psychoactive drugs

Chemical substances that alter perceptions and moods.

Substance use disorder

A disorder characterized by continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk.

Hallucinogens

Distort perceptions.

Cause false sensory hallucinations, impair memory, feelings of relaxation and/or euphoria.

Ex. Marijuana, mushrooms, LSD, ecstasy

Depressants

Reduce neural activity.

Increase relaxation and pain relief, decrease mood and arousal. Slow down body processes.

Ex. alcohol, barbiturates, opiates (heroin)

Stimulants

Excite neural activity.

Increase energy, decrease appetite, brief feelings of euphoria. Speed up body processes.

Ex. caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, meth.

Alcohol

depressant;

Pleasurable: initial high followed by relaxation and disinhibition;

Negative: depression, memory loss, organ damage, impaired reactions

Heroin

depressant;

Pleasurable: rush of euphoria, relief from pain;

Negative: depressed physiology, agonizing withdrawal

Caffeine

stimulant

Pleasurable: increased alertness and wakefulness

Negative: Anxiety, restlessness, and insomnia in high does. Uncomfortable withdrawal.

Nicotine

Stimulant

Pleasurable: arousal and relaxation, sense of well-being

Negative: heart disease, cancer

Cocaine

Stimulant

Pleasurable: Rush of euphoria, confidence, energy

Negative: Irritability, insomnia, hypertension, seizures

Meth

Stimulant

Pleasurable: Euphoria, alertness, energy

Negative: Irritability, insomnia, hypertension, seizures

Ecstasy (MDMA)

Stimulant, mild hallucinogen

Pleasurable: Emotional elevation, disinhibition

Negative: Dehydration, overheating, depressed mood, impaired cognitive and immune functioning.

LSD

Hallucinogen

Pleasurable: Visual "trip"

Negative: risk of panic

Marijuana (THC)

Mild hallucinogen

Pleasurable: Enhanced sensation, relief of pain, distortion of time, relaxation.

Negative: Impaired learning and memory, increased risk of psychological disorders.

Addiction

A complex condition characterized by compulsive drug use or behaviors despite harmful consequences.

Tolerance

Diminished psychoactive effects after repeated use.

Withdrawal

Painful symptoms of the body re-adjusting to the absence of the drug.