ap psych cognition

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memory

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the persistence of learning over time through storage and retrieval of information.

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encoding

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the processing of information into the memory system.

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115 Terms

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memory

the persistence of learning over time through storage and retrieval of information.

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encoding

the processing of information into the memory system.

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storage

the retention of encoded information over time.

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retrieval

the process of getting formation out of memory.

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parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously.

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sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

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short-term memory/working memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as seven digits of a phone number while dialing.

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long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system that includes knowledge, skills, and experience.

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working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information.

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explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare."; brought up in effortful processing

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effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort; pulling declarative memory from long term.

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automatic processing

unconscious encoding of the incidental information from long term memory, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information.

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implicit memory

retention independent of conscious recollection; brought up in automatic processing

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iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture image memory lasting no more that a few tenths of a second.

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echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled for about 3 or 4 seconds.

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chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

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mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

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spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.

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massed practice

craming info

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testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply reading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.

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shallow processing

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words.

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deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention.

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hippocampus

a neural center that is located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage.

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flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.

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long-term potentiation

an increase in a synapses' firing efficiency after repeated stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

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recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

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recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple choice test.

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relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when leaning material for a second time.

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priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception; the reason why retrieval cues work

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mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood.

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state congruent memory

being able to retrieve memories you had in one state by being in that same state again

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serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list.

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recency effect

remembering last items in a list in the short term

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primacy effect

remembering first items in a list in the long term

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anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories.

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retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past.

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proactive interference

the disruptive effect of old information on new information.

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retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new information on old information.

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repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.

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misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event.

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source amnesia

attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined.

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deja vu

the eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.

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cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

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concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.

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prototype

a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories.

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exemplar

like a prototype experience

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artificial intelligence

a rare, almost unattainable prototype comes from this

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creativity

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.

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convergent thinking

narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution.

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divergent thinking

expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions).

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top down processing

type of informal reasoning; already having the gist of a situation before having all of the details

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bottom up processing

type of formal reasoning; gathering as many bits of data as possible before coming up with a solution

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algorithm

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.

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heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently.

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insight

a sudden and novel realization of the solution to a problem.

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confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and ignore or distort contrary evidence.

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anchoring bias

a powerful or emotional thought weighs down the rest of the mind (ie. moms don’t like tiktok)

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sunk cost fallacy

feeling that abandoning a task will have greater consequences than not because you have already put so much time into it

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mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past.

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mental model

a typical way of thinking about how things will interact

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intuition

an effortless, immediate autonomic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning.

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representative heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes.

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availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory.

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overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct--to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

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belief perseverance

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited.

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framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

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language

our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning.

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phoneme

in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit.

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morpheme

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or part of a word.

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grammar

in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others.

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babbling stage

beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language.

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one-word stage

the stage in speech development, from about, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words.

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two-word stage

beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements.

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telegraphic speech

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram using mostly nouns and verbs.

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aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left-hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).

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Broca's area

controls language expression—an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

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Wernicke's area

controls language reception—a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe.

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linguistic determinism

Whorf's hypothesis that language predetermines the way we think

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emotional memory

affected by limbic system, hippocampus, and amygdala

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fluid intelligence

ability for the brain to process new information; gets worse as we get older

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crystallized intelligence

ability for the brain to apply already learned info to new situations; gets better as we age

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stereotype threat

members of a community thought to be less than will perform as less than members of a different group

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Francis Galton

eugenicist; was the first one to quantify intelligence

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Alfred Binet

came up with a test to classify mental abilities; helped the french school children oui oui baguette and developed mental age

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Louis Terman

took Binet test and made it applicable to Americans, became known as the Stanford Binet test

which tests fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing, and working memory

was also a eugenicist

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Weshler Tests

Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale: tests young adults based on their verbal comprehension, working memory, perceptual organization, and processing speed

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Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children: tests verbal comprehension, block design, visual puzzles, digit and picture span, and processing speed

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David Weschler

didn’t use an aged based system; realized intelligence was more than verbal skills that other tests measured

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Howard Gardner

believed in multiple intelligences

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proprioception

kinesthetic intelligence; ability to know how your body is moving

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Charles Spearman

believed in one general intelligence and used factor analysis to group intelligence into one thing

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Robert Sternberg

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence; intelligence exists in how a person interacts with the environment around them

practical: how well a person can function

experiental: how well a person handles a new situation

analytical: how well a person can find the answer

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test reliability:

consistency of a test as a means of measurement

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split half reliability

randomly dividing a test into two different sections and then correlating people’s performances on the two halves.

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equivalent form reliability

the correlation between performance on several equivalent forms of the test

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test-retest reliability

the correlation between a person’s score on one administration of the test with the same person’s score on the next administration

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validity

the accuracy of the test

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face validity

superficial measure of accuracy; type of content validity

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content validity

how well a measure reflects the entire range of material it is supposed to be testing

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criterion-related validity

concurrent validity: measures how much of a characteristic a person has now

predictive validity: the measure of future performance

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construct validity

the ability to be able to compare the performance of people on this test with their performance on any other measure