ap psych cognition

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115 Terms

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memory
the persistence of learning over time through storage and retrieval of information.
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encoding
the processing of information into the memory system.
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storage
the retention of encoded information over time.
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retrieval
the process of getting formation out of memory.
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parallel processing
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously.
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sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.
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short-term memory/working memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as seven digits of a phone number while dialing.
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long-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system that includes knowledge, skills, and experience.
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working memory
a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information.
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explicit memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare."; brought up in effortful processing
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effortful processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort; pulling declarative memory from long term.
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automatic processing
unconscious encoding of the incidental information from long term memory, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information.
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implicit memory
retention independent of conscious recollection; brought up in automatic processing
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iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture image memory lasting no more that a few tenths of a second.
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echoic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled for about 3 or 4 seconds.
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chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.
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mnemonics
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.
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spacing effect
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.
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massed practice
craming info
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testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply reading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.
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shallow processing
encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words.
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deep processing
encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention.
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hippocampus
a neural center that is located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage.
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flashbulb memory
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.
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long-term potentiation
an increase in a synapses' firing efficiency after repeated stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.
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recall
a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.
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recognition
a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple choice test.
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relearning
a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when leaning material for a second time.
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priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception; the reason why retrieval cues work
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mood-congruent memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood.
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state congruent memory
being able to retrieve memories you had in one state by being in that same state again
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serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list.
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recency effect
remembering last items in a list in the short term
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primacy effect
remembering first items in a list in the long term
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anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories.
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retrograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one's past.
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proactive interference
the disruptive effect of old information on new information.
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retroactive interference
the disruptive effect of new information on old information.
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repression
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.
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misinformation effect
incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event.
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source amnesia
attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined.
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deja vu
the eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.
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cognition
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.
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concept
a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.
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prototype
a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories.
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exemplar
like a prototype experience
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artificial intelligence
a rare, almost unattainable prototype comes from this
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creativity
the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.
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convergent thinking
narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution.
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divergent thinking
expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions).
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top down processing
type of informal reasoning; already having the gist of a situation before having all of the details
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bottom up processing
type of formal reasoning; gathering as many bits of data as possible before coming up with a solution
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algorithm
a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.
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heuristic
a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently.
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insight
a sudden and novel realization of the solution to a problem.
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confirmation bias
a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and ignore or distort contrary evidence.
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anchoring bias
a powerful or emotional thought weighs down the rest of the mind (ie. moms don’t like tiktok)
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sunk cost fallacy
feeling that abandoning a task will have greater consequences than not because you have already put so much time into it
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mental set
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past.
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mental model
a typical way of thinking about how things will interact
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intuition
an effortless, immediate autonomic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning.
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representative heuristic
judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes.
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availability heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory.
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overconfidence
the tendency to be more confident than correct--to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.
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belief perseverance
clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited.
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framing
the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.
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language
our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning.
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phoneme
in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit.
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morpheme
in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or part of a word.
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grammar
in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others.
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babbling stage
beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language.
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one-word stage
the stage in speech development, from about, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words.
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two-word stage
beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements.
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telegraphic speech
early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram using mostly nouns and verbs.
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aphasia
impairment of language, usually caused by left-hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).
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Broca's area
controls language expression—an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.
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Wernicke's area
controls language reception—a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe.
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linguistic determinism
Whorf's hypothesis that language predetermines the way we think
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emotional memory
affected by limbic system, hippocampus, and amygdala
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fluid intelligence
ability for the brain to process new information; gets worse as we get older
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crystallized intelligence
ability for the brain to apply already learned info to new situations; gets better as we age
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stereotype threat
members of a community thought to be less than will perform as less than members of a different group
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Francis Galton
eugenicist; was the first one to quantify intelligence
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Alfred Binet
came up with a test to classify mental abilities; helped the french school children oui oui baguette and developed mental age
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Louis Terman
took Binet test and made it applicable to Americans, became known as the Stanford Binet test

which tests fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing, and working memory

was also a eugenicist
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Weshler Tests
Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale: tests young adults based on their verbal comprehension, working memory, perceptual organization, and processing speed

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Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children: tests verbal comprehension, block design, visual puzzles, digit and picture span, and processing speed
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David Weschler
didn’t use an aged based system; realized intelligence was more than verbal skills that other tests measured
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Howard Gardner
believed in multiple intelligences
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proprioception
kinesthetic intelligence; ability to know how your body is moving
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Charles Spearman
believed in one general intelligence and used factor analysis to group intelligence into one thing
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Robert Sternberg
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence; intelligence exists in how a person interacts with the environment around them

practical: how well a person can function

experiental: how well a person handles a new situation

analytical: how well a person can find the answer
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test reliability:
consistency of a test as a means of measurement
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split half reliability
randomly dividing a test into two different sections and then correlating people’s performances on the two halves.
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equivalent form reliability
the correlation between performance on several equivalent forms of the test
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test-retest reliability
the correlation between a person’s score on one administration of the test with the same person’s score on the next administration
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validity
the accuracy of the test
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face validity
superficial measure of accuracy; type of content validity
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content validity
how well a measure reflects the entire range of material it is supposed to be testing
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criterion-related validity
concurrent validity: measures how much of a characteristic a person has now

predictive validity: the measure of future performance
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construct validity
the ability to be able to compare the performance of people on this test with their performance on any other measure