Intro to Psychology

interneurons

Exist within the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and carry messages from one neuron to another

sensory neurons

Carry information from sensory organs into the central nervous system

motor neurons

Carry messages out from the central nervous system to operate muscles and glands.

mirror neurons

Present themselves when engaging in behaviour and observes someone else perform a similar action → May be the neurological basis for imitation and social learning

dendrites

receive input to the neuron

axon

carry the neuron’s output

cell body

the central, life-sustaining part of a neuron

synapse

the junction where neurons connect and communicate; signals pass from one neuron to another

transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

temporarily disrupts/briefly triggers activity in specific cortical areas via a magnetic field

electroencephalogram (EEG)

record gross electrical activity in the areas of the brain via electrodes placed on the skull

positron emission tomograph (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

produce images depicting changes in neural activity in each area of the brain by measuring changes in blood flow

peripheral nervous system

spinal and cranial nerves and their various branches

spinal cord

acts as a conduit, carrying somatosensory information to the brain and motor commands from the brain and organizes spinal reflexes, contents pattern generators that produce rhythmic movement sequences (ex. walking)

thalamus

major sensory and motor relay station

cerebellum/basal ganglia

crucial for production of coordinated actions

hypothalamus/lymbic system

crucially involved in motivation and emotion and other functions

hippocampus

grows as a result of spatial learning → spatial learning causes larger portion of brain to become involved in performing that particular skill

long-term potentiation (LTP)

strengthens synaptic connections in ways that mediate learning

Hebb’s theory

coordinated firing of presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons strengthen the synaptic connections of the first onto second

analogy/analogical thinking

comparing two different concepts or situations to identify similarities and derive conclusions or solutions. (ex. ‘Love is a battlefield’ to describe a tumultuous relationship)

inductive reasoning

use of specific observations or patterns to form broader generalizations, theories, or probable conclusions (ex. You’ve only seen white swans ever, so you conclude that swans are always white)

availability bias

Tendency to give too much weight to information that comes more easily to mind than other relevant information (ex. fearing plane crashes more than car crashes because it is covered more in the media)

confirmation bias

Tendency to try to confirm, rather than disconfirm, our current hypothesis (hypothesis cannot be proven, only disproven) (ex. Ignoring warning signs of bad weather because you want to go to the beach)

predictable world bias

tendency to perceive order and predictability in events that are actually random or highly complex (ex. Gamblers believing they are close to a jackpot when it is based on a random algorithm)

deduction

Starting with a general principle/premise to reach a certain specific conclusion (ex. All dogs are animals → dogs have 4 legs → all animals have 4 legs)

functional fixedness

tendency to see tools as designed for specific purpose (may, however, also result in more efficient use of tools)

insight

solution to a problem presents itself very suddenly → light-bulb moment (ex. suddenly seeing a clue that solves a mystery)

general intelligence g

broad mental ability underlying performance across all cognitive tasks

fluid intelligence

the ability to reason, solve new problems, recognize patterns, and think abstractly without relying on prior knowledge

crystallized intelligence

knowledge, skills, and wisdom accumulated over a lifetime through experience, education, and culture

flynn effect

substantial, long-term rise of IQ across generations; improvement in abstract reasoning potentially due to societal changes inculding nutrition, technology, and education.

regulatory drives

motivational state that helps maintain the body’s internal environment necessary for survival (ex. hunger)

drivers

Internal mental conditions that determine individuals decision-making regarding actions

nonregulatory drives

any generalized state of motivation functioning outside of survival for the individual (ex. sex)

central-state theory of drives

Central drive systems, or specific brain regions, integrate signals for drives and direct behaviours to restore homeostasis (maintaining of bodys internal environment for survival)

PYY

Influence arcuate nucleus and nearby areas to reduce hunger

Leptin

Hormone produced by fat cells, helps regulate body weight by acting on hypothalamus to reduce appetite

Sensory stimuli

Sensory-specific satiety and appetite-boosting power of learned cues that signal the availability of food

suprachiasmatic nucleus

in hypothalamus acts as internal clock for sleepiness and wakefulness (synchronized by light-dark cycle)

affect

feeling aspect of emotion (can vary in degree of arousal and pleasantness/unpleasantness)

peripheral feedback

sensory information generated outside of the central nervous system; transmitted inwards to inform and adjust your behaviour

amygdala

rapidly evaluates sensory information for significance to survival or well-being; triggers bodily responses

prefrontal cortex

crucial for conscious emotional experience and deliberate actions based on it

left/right hemisphere

relatively specialized for emotional responses involving withdrawal (right) and approach (left)

cephalocandal development

development is most rapid in the head region, with the rest of the body catching up in size later in life.

assimilation

fitting new experiences into existing schemes (ex. horse is a dog because is has 4 legs)

accommodation

modifying schemes to fit with new experiences (ex. horse is its own species)

operational schemes

schemes for reversible actions (ex. Light switch is responsible for the light being on/off)

schemes

mental blueprints for action

mental construct

subjective idea or framework the mind creates to understand and organize the world

innate language acquisition device (LAD)

universal grammar and mechanisms that guide native-language learning across cultures

language-acquisition support system (LASS)

motherese or infant-directed speech to help children develop speech and language.

cone vision

provide color vision, high visual clarity/sharpness, and the ability to see in bright illumination.

rod vision

provide the sensitivity that allows vision in dim illumination. You can see only with ronds in very dim light

trichromatic theory of color vision (three-primaries law)

our eyes have three types of cone cells in the retina, sensitive to lengths of wavelengths of light, which combine to allow us to perceive millions of different colors

opponent-process theory of color vision (law of complementarity)

physiological units involved in color vision are affected in opposite ways (excited/inhibited) by complementary wavelengths

gestalt principles

whole objects are not merely the sum of their parts; wholes take precedence in conscious perception. We automatically organize stimulus elements into wholes and automatically separate figures from ground.

binocular disparity

derives from the fact that we have 2 eyes; different spatial positions receive different images of object

motion parallax

can occur with just one eye; makes use of different images of an object that either eye perceives as the head moves

pictorial depth

do not depend on actual three-dimensionality; allow us to infer depth in two-dimensional images

size constancy

the ability to perceive an object as the same size when its visual image changes in size due to its distance to the viewer

McGunk effect

when vision and auditory sounds are in conflict, people will respond more to the visual cue than the auditory one (visual dominance effect)

pygmalion effect

Adults expectations about children’s behaviour created the expected behaviour (occurs by partly altering their self-concept)

big-fish-in-small-pond effect

our judgements and feelings about ourselves depend on the reference group to which we compare ourselves

insufficient-justification effect

when we freely and with little incentive do something contrary to an attitude, we alter our attitude to better fit the action

polarization

when group discussion moves them towards a more extreme version of the view that the group initially agreed on

predisposing cause

genetic influences, early environmental effects on the brain, learned beliefs

precipitating cause

generally stressful life experiences or losses

electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

treat depression that can’t be helped by other means - electrical currents applied to the skull to induce brain seizures

psychosurgery

small, localized lesions are used occasionally to incapacitate obsessive-compulsive disorder

deep brain stimulation

uses electrical currents to disrupt activity rather than destroy tissue at specific brain locations

transcranial magnetic simulation

send pulses of electricity through a coil jeld above a person’s head; induced electric currents in the neurons immediately below the coil (effective in treating depression)

psychodynamic therapy

Assumes that psychological disorders arise from unresolved mental conflicts that strongly influence consicous thought and action

humanistic therapy

Helps clients accept their own feelings and desires → lead patients to self-actualiziation

behavioural therapy

Extinguish maladaptive responses and condition healthier responses by exposing the client to new environmental conditions (ex. exposure therapy)

cognitive therapy

involves identifying the maladaptive thoughts and beliefs, convincing the client of their irrationality and helps them along with the unpleasant emotions they provoke

Perpetuating cause

poor self-care, social withdrawal, and negative reactions from others