Cognition

memory

memory

persistence of learning over time through encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

3 stages of retention

Ebbinghaus - recall, recognition, relearning

forgetting curve

Ebbinghaus - shows how information is lost over time when there is no attempt to retain it; course of forgetting is initially rapid, then levels off with time

recall

retrieving information learned earlier/not currently in conscious recall (fill in the blank)

recognition

identifying items previously learned (multiple choice)

relearning

learning more quickly the 2nd/3rd time

information-processing model

encoding, storage, and retrieval

encoding

getting information into memory system

storage

retaining encoded information over time

retrieval

getting information out of memory storage

multi-store model of memory

Atkinson - sensory memory, short-term (working) memory, long-term memory

parallel processing

processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously

sensory memory

immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in memory system

short-term memory

activated memory - holds few items briefly

long-term memory

relatively permanent/limitless storehouse of memory system - knowledge, skills, and experience

working memory

part of short-term memory - adds conscious, active processing of incoming auditory/visual information and information retrieved from long-term memory

explicit memories

facts/experiences one can consciously know/declare

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

implicit memories

retention of learned skills/classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information

central executive

combines and focuses senses to store information to long-term memory

iconic memory

momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli

echoic memory

momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units

mnemonics

memory aids (use vivid imagery and organizational devices)

hierarchies

few broad concepts divided and subdivided into narrower concepts/facts

spacing effect

distributed study/practice to yield better long-term retention

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving information

serial position effect

remembering the first and last items on a list the best

recency effect

remembering what has just entered memory the best

primacy effect

remembering the first pieces of information encountered the best

next-in-line effect

remembering the information right before the worst if you’re next in line

relearning effect

it will take less time to relearn material we previously encoded, even if we have “forgotten” what we learned previously

shallow processing

encoding on basic level - word structure/appearance

deep processing

encoding semantically - meaning of words

semantic memory

explicit memory of facts and general knowledge

semantic network

the way a new memory is represented/stored based on meaningful connections between the new memory and established memories

semantic encoding

a process of connecting information/ideas based on shared elements of meaning

episodic memory

explicit memory of personally experienced events

procedural memory

memories of skills and how to perform them

constructed memory

false details of a real event/recollection of an event that never occurred

memory consolidation

neural storage of long-term memory

basal ganglia

deep brain structures involved in motor movement - form procedural memories for skills

cerebellum

forms and stores implicit memories from classical conditioning

hippocampus

neural center in limbic system - helps process explicit memories for storage

flashbulb memories

clear/sustained memory of emotionally significant moment/event

long-term potential (LTP)

increase in cells’ firing potential after brief/rapid stimulation - neural basis for learning and memory

priming

activation of particular associations in memory

context-dependent memory

remembering something when in the same context as experienced

encoding specificity principle

cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping recall it

state-dependent memory

recalling memory when in the same state

mood congruent

recalling experiences consistent with one’s current good/bad mood

6 reasons for forgetting

encoding failure, amnesia, repression, interference, storage decay, retrieval failure

anterograde amnesia

inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

inability to retrieve information from the past

proactive interference

prior learning disrupts recall of new information

retroactive interference

new learning disrupts recall of old information

positive transfer

previously learned information facilitates learning of new information

repression

psychoanalytic theory - banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

reconsolidation

when retrieved, previously stored memories are potentially altered before being stored again

misinformation effect

misleading information distorts memory of event

source amnesia (misattribution)

faulty memory for how/when/where information is learned/imagined

deja vu

feeling of “I’ve experienced this before”

cognition

all mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

executive function

general term for cognitive processes/skills that help us control our conscious thoughts

concept

mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

prototype

mental image/best example of a category

creativity

ability to produce new and valuable ideas

5 components of creativity

expertise (well-developed knowledge), imaginative thinking skills, venturesome personality, intrinsic motivation, creative environment

aptitude

ability to learn

convergent thinking

narrowing down to single best solution

divergent thinking

considers many options and thinks in new ways

algorithm

step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution

heuristic

simple thinking strategy that allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently

representatives heuristic

estimating likelihood of events by comparing to particular prototypes

availability heuristic

estimating likelihood of events based on mental availability

insight

Kohler - sudden realization of solution

confirmation bias

searching for information supporting preconceptions and ignoring/distorting contradictions

fixation

inability to see problem from new perspective

mental set

approaching problem with one mindset - often what’s worked previously

intuition

fast and automatic feelings and thoughts

overconfidence

overestimating accuracy of knowledge and judgements

belief perseverance

clinging to beliefs in the face of contrary evidence

framing

how an issue is posed

language

spoken, written, or signed words and ways we combine them to communicate meaning

language acquisition

stages in how we learn language

language acquisition device

the ability to learn language rapidly as children - Chomsky theorized that humans are born with this

phoneme

smallest distinctive sound unit

morpheme

smallest unit that carries meaning

grammar

set of rules that enables people to communicate

overgeneralization

misapplication of grammar rules

semantics

deriving meanings from sounds

syntax

ordering words into sentences

universal grammar

predisposition to learn grammar rules

receptive language

understanding what is said to and about you

babbling stage

4 months - spontaneously utters sounds unrelated to language

one-word stage

1-2 years - speaks mostly in single words

two-word stage

2 years - speaks mostly in two words

telegraphic speech

early speech stage using mostly nouns and verbs

linguistic relativity hypothesis

Whorf - the language we use might control, and in some ways, limit our thinking