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Parliamentary System - Comparing Three Systems of Government
Executive power is vested in the parliament or a prime minister who is accountable to the parliament.
The parliament is the supreme law-making body and the executive is responsible to it.
The head of state is usually a ceremonial figurehead with limited powers.
The government can be removed by a vote of no confidence in the parliament.
Examples: United Kingdom, India, Japan.
Presidential System - Comparing Three Systems of Government
Executive power is vested in a president who is directly elected by the people.
The president is both the head of state and head of government.
The president has significant powers and is not accountable to the legislature.
The legislature is a separate and co-equal branch of government.
The president can only be removed through impeachment.
Examples: United States, Brazil, Mexico.
Semi-Presidential System - Comparing Three Systems of Government
Executive power is divided between a president and a prime minister who share power.
The president is the head of state and the prime minister is the head of government.
The president has significant powers but is also accountable to the legislature.
The prime minister is responsible to the legislature and can be removed by a vote of no confidence.
Examples: France, Russia, South Korea.
Checks and Balances in a Parliamentary System - The Executive Branch
Vote of No Confidence and Question Period
Checks and Balances in a Parliamentary System - The Executive Branch - Vote of No Confidence
The legislative branch can pass a vote of no confidence, which would force the Prime Minister and their cabinet to resign. This ensures that the executive branch is accountable to the legislative branch.
Checks and Balances in a Parliamentary System - The Executive Branch - Question Period
Members of the legislative branch can question the Prime Minister and their cabinet during question period. This allows for transparency and accountability.
Checks and Balances in a Parliamentary System - The Legislative Branch
Passing Laws and Committees
Checks and Balances in a Parliamentary System - The Legislative Branch - Passing Laws
The legislative branch can pass laws that limit the power of the executive branch. This ensures that the executive branch does not become too powerful.
Checks and Balances in a Parliamentary System - The Legislative Branch - Committees
Committees within the legislative branch can investigate the actions of the executive branch. This ensures that the executive branch is held accountable for their actions.
Checks and Balances in a Parliamentary System - The Judicial Branch - Judicial Review
The judicial branch can review the actions of the executive and legislative branches to ensure that they are constitutional. This ensures that the other branches of government do not overstep their bounds.
Executive Systems
A set of cognitive processes that are responsible for planning, decision-making, and goal-directed behavior. These processes are essential for the successful completion of complex tasks and achieving long-term goals.
Importance of Executive Systems
Executive systems play a crucial role in our daily lives, as they are involved in many activities such as problem-solving, decision-making, and planning.
They are also essential for academic and professional success, as they help individuals to organize their thoughts, prioritize tasks, and manage time effectively.
United Kingdom - Structure and Function of the Executive Branch
System:
Parliamentary
Monarchy
Structure/Function:
Monarch: Head of State; Ceremonial Figure Head/Little to No Power.
Prime Minister: Head of Government; Responsible for leading the legislature and cabinets in formulating, implementing, and executing policies through different agencies.
Russia - Structure and Function of the Executive Branch
System: Semi-Presidential
Structure/Function:
President: Head of State; Commander in Chief, oversees Foreign Policy
Prime Minister: Head of Government; Oversees civil service
China - Structure and Function of the Executive Branch
Structure/Function:
President: Head of State; Commander in Chief, oversees all top
Premier (Authoritarian): Head of Government; Oversees Civil service
Iran - Structure and Function of the Executive Branch
Structure/Function:
Supreme Leader: Head of State; Commander in Chief, appoints top leaders
President (Authoritarian): Head of Government; Oversees Civil service and foreign policy
Nigeria and Mexico
System: Presidential
Structure/Function:
President: Head of State and the Government; commander in chief, responsible for leading the legislature and cabinets in formulating, implementing, and executing policies through different agencies.
Executive Term Limits
Executive term limits refer to the maximum number of terms or years that an individual can serve as the head of state or government in a country.
Purpose of Executive Term Limits
The purpose of term limits is to prevent the concentration of power in the hands of one individual and to promote democratic governance.
Russia - Executive Term Limits
In Russia, the president can serve a maximum of two consecutive terms, each term lasting six years.
However, the current president, Vladimir Putin, has been in power since 2000, with a brief hiatus as prime minister from 2008 to 2012.
In 2020, a constitutional amendment was passed that reset Putin's term limits, allowing him to potentially remain in power until 2036.
United Kingdom - Executive Term Limits
The UK does not have formal term limits for the prime minister, who is the head of government.
However, the prime minister is subject to re-election every five years, and there is a convention that a prime minister should resign if they lose a vote of no confidence in the House of Commons.
China - Executive Term Limits
In China, the president and premier can serve a maximum of two consecutive terms, each term lasting five years.
However, in 2018, a constitutional amendment was passed that removed term limits for the president, allowing Xi Jinping to potentially remain in power indefinitely.
Iran - Executive Term Limits
In Iran, the president can serve a maximum of two consecutive terms, each term lasting four years.
However, the supreme leader, who is the highest-ranking political and religious authority in the country, has no term limits and can serve for life.
Mexico - Executive Term Limits
In Mexico, the president can serve a single six-year term and is not eligible for re-election.
This rule was introduced in 1934 to prevent the concentration of power in the hands of one individual.
Nigeria - Executive Term Limits
In Nigeria, the president can serve a maximum of two consecutive terms, each term lasting four years.
This rule was introduced in 1999 after a long period of military rule.
Advantages of Executive Term Limits
Prevents Abuse of Power, Promotes Democracy, Encourages New Ideas and Fresh Perspectives, and Reduces Corruption
Prevents Abuse of Power
Executive term limits prevent individuals from holding onto power for too long, which can lead to abuse of power. This ensures that power is distributed more evenly and that no one person becomes too powerful.
Promotes Democracy
By limiting the number of terms an individual can hold office, executive term limits promote democracy by ensuring that power is not concentrated in the hands of a few individuals.
Encourages New Ideas and Fresh Perspectives
Term limits encourage new people to run for office, which can bring new ideas and fresh perspectives to the table. This can lead to more innovative policies and better governance.
Reduces Corruption
Executive term limits can reduce corruption by preventing individuals from becoming too entrenched in power and using their position for personal gain.
Disadvantages of Executive Term Limits
Limits Voter Choice, Reduces Institutional Knowledge, Encourages Lam-Duck Behavior, and Can Lead to Instability
Limits Voter Choice
Executive term limits limit voter choice by preventing individuals from running for office after they have served a certain number of terms. This can prevent qualified individuals from running for office and limit the options available to voters.
Reduces Institutional Knowledge
By limiting the number of terms an individual can hold office, executive term limits can reduce institutional knowledge and experience. This can make it more difficult for governments to function effectively.
Encourages Lame-Duck Behavior
When executives are in their final term, they may be less motivated to pursue bold policies or make difficult decisions. This can lead to a period of "lame-duck" behavior, where the executive is less effective and less responsive to the needs of the people.
Can Lead to Instability
Executive term limits can lead to instability by forcing frequent turnover in executive offices. This can make it difficult for governments to pursue long-term policies and can lead to a lack of continuity in governance.
Legislative Systems
The processes and structures through which laws are made and enacted in a country. These systems vary across different countries and are influenced by factors such as history, culture, and political ideologies.
Types of Legislative Systems
Unicameral System, Bicameral System, Federal System, and Unitary System
Unicameral System
This is a legislative system in which there is only one chamber or house of parliament. Examples of countries with unicameral systems include Denmark, Greece, and Hungary.
Bicameral System
This is a legislative system in which there are two chambers or houses of parliament. The two chambers usually have different functions and powers. Examples of countries with bicameral systems include the United States, India, and Australia.
Federal System
This is a legislative system in which power is shared between the central government and the states or provinces. In a federal system, there are usually two levels of government, each with its own legislative body. Examples of countries with federal systems include the United States, Canada, and Australia.
Unitary System
This is a legislative system in which power is centralized in the central government. In a unitary system, there is usually only one legislative body. Examples of countries with unitary systems include France, Japan, and China.
Functions of Legislative Systems
Lawmaking, Representation, Oversight, and Budgetary Control
Lawmaking
The primary function of legislative systems is to make laws. This involves the introduction, debate, and passage of bills.
Representation
Legislative systems provide a platform for citizens to be represented in government. Members of parliament are elected to represent the interests of their constituents.
Oversight
Legislative systems provide oversight over the executive branch of government. This involves monitoring the actions of the government and holding it accountable for its decisions.
Budgetary Control
Legislative systems are responsible for approving government budgets and ensuring that public funds are spent in a responsible and transparent manner.
The United Kingdom’s Parliamentary System
The United Kingdom's parliamentary system is a bicameral system of government, consisting of two houses: the House of Commons and the House of Lords.
UK’s Parliamentary System - The House of Commons
The House of Commons is the lower house of the UK Parliament, consisting of 650 elected members of parliament (MPs).
Members of Parliament are elected through a first-past-the-post system, where the candidate with the most votes in a constituency wins a seat in this house.
This house is responsible for passing laws and scrutinizing the work of the government.
The leader of the political party with the most seats in the house becomes the Prime Minister and forms the government.
UK’s Parliamentary System - The House of Lords
The House of Lords is the upper house of the UK Parliament, consisting of around 800 members.
Members are not elected, but are appointed by the monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister.
This house is responsible for scrutinizing and revising legislation passed by the House of Commons.
It also has the power to delay legislation, but not to veto it.
UK’s Parliamentary System - Role of the Monarch
Role of the Monarch
The UK's parliamentary system is a constitutional monarchy, which means that the monarch (currently Charles III) is the head of state, but has limited powers.
The monarch's role is largely ceremonial, but they do have some important functions, such as opening and dissolving Parliament, and giving royal assent to legislation.
Russia’s Legislative System
Russia has a bicameral legislative system consisting of the Federal Assembly, which is divided into two chambers: the State Duma and the Federation Council.
Russia’s Legislative System - The State Duma
The State Duma is the lower house of the Federal Assembly and consists of 450 members who are elected for a term of five years.
The Duma is responsible for passing legislation and approving the budget.
Russia’s Legislative System - The Federation Council
The Federation Council is the upper house of the Federal Assembly and consists of 170 members.
It represents the regions of Russia and is responsible for approving legislation passed by the State Duma.
Russia’s Legislative System - The President of Russia
The President of Russia has the power to dissolve the State Duma and call for new elections.
The President also has the power to veto legislation passed by the Duma, but the Duma can override the veto with a two-thirds majority vote.
Russia’s Legislative System - The Legislative Process Part 1
The legislative process in Russia begins with the introduction of a bill in the State Duma.
The bill is then reviewed by various committees before being put to a vote.
If the bill is passed by the Duma, it is then sent to the Federation Council for approval.
Russia’s Legislative System - The Legislative Process Part 2
Once a bill is approved by both chambers of the Federal Assembly, it is sent to the President for signature.
If the President signs the bill, it becomes law.
If the President vetoes the bill, it is sent back to the State Duma for further review.
Russia’s Legislative System - Criticized
The legislative system in Russia has been criticized for being heavily influenced by the ruling party and lacking in transparency.
However, recent reforms have aimed to increase the independence of the judiciary and improve the legislative process.
Iran’s Legislative System
Iran's legislative system is based on a combination of Islamic principles and democratic elements. The system is composed of two main bodies: the Islamic Consultative Assembly (Majlis) and the Guardian Council.
Iran’s Legislative System - The Islamic Consultative Assembly
The Islamic Consultative Assembly is the main legislative body in Iran.
It is composed of 290 members who are elected by the people every four years.
The members of the Majlis are responsible for passing laws and supervising the work of the government.
Iran’s Legislative System - The Guardian Council
The Guardian Council is a 12-member body that is responsible for ensuring that all laws passed by the Majlis are in accordance with Islamic principles and the Iranian Constitution.
The members of the Guardian Council are appointed by the Supreme Leader and the Head of the Judiciary.
Iran’s Legislative System - The Process of Lawmaking
The process of lawmaking in Iran begins with a proposal by a member of the Majlis.
The proposal is then reviewed by the relevant committee, which may make changes or amendments to the proposal.
The proposal is then debated and voted on by the members of the Majlis.
If the proposal is approved by the Majlis, it is sent to the Guardian Council for review.
The Guardian Council may approve the proposal, reject it, or send it back to the Majlis for further review.
Mexico’s Legislative System
Mexico has a federal representative democratic republic system of government. The legislative branch of the government is bicameral, consisting of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies.
d The Senate
The Senate is composed of 128 senators, two for each state and two for Mexico City, who are elected for a six-year term.
It is responsible for approving or rejecting presidential appointments, ratifying international treaties, and approving the federal budget.
It also has the power to remove public officials from office through impeachment.
Mexico’s Legislative System - The Chamber of Deputies
The Chamber of Deputies is composed of 500 deputies, who are elected for a three-year term.
It is responsible for initiating and approving legislation related to taxation, public spending, and other matters related to the federal government.
It also has the power to impeach public officials, but the Senate is responsible for conducting the impeachment trial.
Mexico’s Legislative System - The Legislative Processd
The legislative process in Mexico begins with the introduction of a bill in either the Senate or the Chamber of Deputies.
The bill is then referred to a committee for review and discussion.
If the committee approves the bill, it is sent to the full Senate or Chamber of Deputies for debate and voting.
If the bill is approved by both houses of the legislature, it is sent to the President for signature.
If the President signs the bill, it becomes law. If the President vetoes the bill, it can still become law if two-thirds of both houses of the legislature vote to override the veto.
China’s Legislative System
China's legislative system is based on the principle of the supremacy of the National People's Congress (NPC), which is the highest organ of state power in China.
China’s Legislative System - NPC
It is responsible for enacting laws, amending the constitution, and supervising the work of the government and the judiciary.
It is composed of deputies who are elected by the people for a term of five years.
It meets once a year in March and is presided over by the NPC Standing Committee, which is responsible for carrying out the NPC's decisions and supervising the work of the government and the judiciary.
China’s Legislative System - The NPC Standing Committee
The NPC Standing Committee is composed of the chairman, vice-chairmen, secretary-general, and members, who are elected by the NPC.
It has the power to interpret laws, issue decisions and directives, and supervise the work of the government and the judiciary.
China’s Legislative System - State Council
The State Council, which is the highest administrative organ of the government, is responsible for implementing the laws and policies enacted by the NPC and its Standing Committee.
China’s Legislative System - The Judiciary
The judiciary is independent of the government and is responsible for interpreting and enforcing the laws.
China’s Legislative System - The Supreme People’s Court
The Supreme People's Court is the highest court in China and is responsible for supervising the work of the lower courts and ensuring that the laws are enforced uniformly throughout the country.
Nigeria’s Legislative System
Nigeria operates a bicameral legislative system consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The legislative arm of government is responsible for making laws, checking the activities of the executive arm, and representing the interests of the people.
Nigeria’s Legislative System - The Senate
The Senate is the upper chamber of the National Assembly and consists of 109 members.
Each state is represented by three senators, while the Federal Capital Territory (FCT) is represented by one senator.
The Senate is headed by the Senate President, who is elected by the members of the Senate.
Nigeria’s Legislative System - The House of Representatives
The House of Representatives is the lower chamber of the National Assembly and consists of 360 members.
The number of representatives each state has is determined by its population.
It is headed by the Speaker, who is elected by the members of the House.
Nigeria’s Legislative System - The Legislative Process
Legislative Process
Bills can originate from either chamber of the National Assembly.
A bill must pass through three readings in each chamber before it can be sent to the President for assent.
The President has the power to veto a bill, but the National Assembly can override the veto with a two-thirds majority vote in each chamber.
Independent Legislatures
It is a legislative body that is free from external influence and control, particularly from the executive branch of government.
Independent Legislatures - Concept Based on…
The concept of an independent legislature is based on the principle of separation of powers, which is a fundamental feature of democratic governance.
Independent Legislatures - Members are…
In an independent legislature, members are free to express their views and opinions without fear of retribution or punishment from the executive branch.
Independent Legislatures - Essential for…
The independence of the legislature is essential for ensuring that laws are made in the best interests of the people, rather than for the benefit of a particular political party or individual.
Independent Legislature - Also Important for…
Independent legislatures are also important for holding the executive branch accountable for its actions and decisions.
Independent Legislature - In many countries…
In many countries, the independence of the legislature is enshrined in the constitution, which provides for a system of checks and balances to prevent any one branch of government from becoming too powerful.
Independent Legislatures - However…
However, in practice, the independence of the legislature can be compromised by a variety of factors, including political pressure, corruption, and lack of resources.
Independent Legislature - To maintain this…
To maintain the independence of the legislature, it is important to ensure that members are elected through a fair and transparent process, that they have access to the resources they need to carry out their duties, and that they are protected from external interference.
United Kingdom - Degree of Independence
Degree of Independence: High
Explanation: The UK is a developed country with a strong economy and political stability. It is a member of the European Union (EU) but has opted out of some of its policies, such as the Euro currency and the Schengen Agreement. The UK also has a strong military and diplomatic presence globally, giving it a high degree of independence.
Example: The UK's decision to leave the EU in 2016, known as Brexit, demonstrates its willingness to assert its independence and sovereignty.
Russia - Degree of Independence
Degree of Independence: Moderate
Explanation: Russia is a large and powerful country with significant natural resources and a strong military. However, it has faced economic sanctions and political isolation from the international community due to its actions in Ukraine and Syria. This limits its degree of independence.
Example: Russia's dependence on oil exports for its economy makes it vulnerable to fluctuations in global oil prices and the policies of other oil-producing countries.
China - Degree of Independence
Degree of Independence: Moderate
Explanation: China is the world's most populous country and has the second-largest economy. It has a strong government and military, but its economy is heavily dependent on exports and foreign investment. This limits its degree of independence.
Example: China's trade war with the United States in recent years has highlighted its vulnerability to external economic pressures.
Iran - Degree of Independence
Degree of Independence: Low
Explanation: Iran is a developing country with a relatively weak economy and military. It is also subject to economic sanctions and political isolation from the international community due to its nuclear program and support for terrorism. This limits its degree of independence.
Example: Iran's reliance on oil exports for its economy makes it vulnerable to fluctuations in global oil prices and the policies of other oil-producing countries.
Mexico - Degree of Independence
Degree of Independence: Moderate
Explanation: Mexico is a developing country with a strong economy and political stability. However, it is heavily dependent on exports to the United States, which limits its degree of independence.
Example: Mexico's economy suffered during the COVID-19 pandemic due to disruptions in global supply chains and reduced demand for its exports
Judicial Systems
These are the mechanisms through which a society resolves disputes and enforces laws. They are responsible for interpreting and applying the law to individual cases.
Types of Judicial Systems
Common Law System, Civil Law System, Islamic Law System, Customary Law System, and Mixed Legal System
Common Law System
Originated in England and spread to other countries, including the United States.
Based on legal precedents established by previous court decisions.
Judges have a significant role in interpreting the law and determining the outcome of cases.
Civil Law System
Originated in ancient Rome and is used in many countries, including France and Germany.
Based on written laws and codes that are created by legislative bodies.
Judges have a more limited role in interpreting the law and are expected to apply the law as written.
Islamic Law System
Based on the teachings of the Quran and the Hadith.
Used in many countries with a Muslim majority, including Saudi Arabia and Iran.
Judges are expected to interpret the law in accordance with Islamic principles.
Customary Law System
Based on the customs and traditions of a particular community or society.
Used in many countries in Africa and other parts of the world.
Judges are expected to apply the customs and traditions of the community to resolve disputes.
Mixed Legal System
Combines elements of two or more legal systems.
Used in many countries, including South Africa and Louisiana in the United States.
Judges are expected to apply the relevant laws and legal principles from each system to resolve disputes.
Structure of Judicial Systems - Types of Courts
Supreme Court, Appellate Court, and District Court
Supreme Court
The highest court in the judicial system. It has the final say on legal matters and can overrule decisions made by lower courts.
Appellate Court
Also known as the Court of Appeals, it hears appeals from lower courts. It does not conduct trials but reviews the decisions made by lower courts.
District Court
Also known as the Trial Court, it is the court of first instance. It conducts trials and makes decisions on legal matters.
Structure of Judicial Systems - Levels of Courts
Federal Court, State Court, and Local Court
Note
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