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What was black consciousness?
Less of an organised political movement and more an intellectual orientation. Asserted self-assurance in being black at a time when white South African society was most of its power. It was an attitude of mind that aimed to make sure black people 'self-defined'. it was concerned with taking pride in black identity, history and culture.
Why was the use of the word 'black' a challenge in itself?
Because it challenged negative terms such as 'non-white' or 'nie-blanke', which was common in everyday ;language and proclaimed the sing on benches and beaches.
Where did it originate?
USA. It derived from activists using it instead of 'coloured' but it was also an older term of self-description in indigenous African languages.
What was the purpose of black consciousness?
To kill off the much-disliked government term Bantu as well as other racial categories. It went beyond the term African, which has been used by both the ANC and PAC.
What did 'blackness' refer to?
In some senses colour, but it was also a political and psychological identity. Coloured and India people could identify with the idea of being black and some did participate in the movement, especially at the University of Durban Westville and the University of the Western Cape.
Turfloop and Fort Hare
These were black universities which has produced activists who became central in South African protest politics.
How did these universities give them this opportunity?
they were apartheid universities, which mean that black students didn’t have to interact daily with white students or compete for political space on campus. White students did try to maintain in contact with SASO, and there was no end to the communication.
How was SASO able to maintain a strong presence?
although some of its leaders were detained in early 1970s, SASO was able to maintain control by influencing and controlling the Student Representative councils.
What opportunity did SASO use to stage mass protests?
the end of the direct Portuguese colonial rule in Mozambique in 1974. at Turfloop students organised a rally attended by 1200.
how did the leadership move in Durban?
in Durban, SASO staged a march and rally at a public stadium, ignoring a government ban. the leadership had moved within a few years from ideological mobilisation to direct confrontation.
what was launched by 1972?
a Black Consciousness movement and a Black People’s convention were launched.
what were some of the challenges of the Black consciousness movement and Black people’s convention?
in certain aspects they drew on the africanist heritage of the PAC, its leaders were careful to distance themselves from direct connections with the banned organisations
differences between the PAC and the Black Consciousness Movements and Black People’s convention
the PAC has been a movement largely of migrant workers, while black consciousness was a movement of students and youth. black consciousness did not look primarily to the rest of Africa for its inspiration.
why didn’t Biko focus on African tradition and directly attacking the homelands?
because by the early 1970s, a decade after many African countries achieved independence, the excitement of decolonisation and nationalism had given way to military coups, one party states and dictators.
where did black consciousness look?
black consciousness looked to the future. it was a generational movement of students and youth in search of a new identity that transcended apartheid and subservience.
why was Turfloop particularly important?
in 1972, the student president, Abraham Onkgopotse Tiro, was allowed to make a speech at the graduation ceremony. he was a staunch christian influenced by black consciousness. he made a stinging attack on the university authorities for the poor facilities, discrimination against African staff and the inequalities in South African society more generally.
Abraham Onkgopotse Tiro’s speech
his speech was by no means the most radical, but the context was explosive as he spoke in front of the assemblies of white university authorities, black staff, parents and students.
Abraham Onkgopotse Tiro’s speech aftermath
The Afrikaner rector of the university expelled him after a protest on campus. Tiro found a post teaching at Morris Isaacson High School in Soweto. some pupils there had already formed a branch of the South African Students Movement (SASM) which was the black consciousness organisation in the schools. Tiro acted as a SASO representative as well as a teacher. One of his pipes was Tsietsi Mashinini who became a key leader of the 1976 students revolt.
what community organisations did black conciseness groups help launch?
although largely focused in educational institutions, black consciousness groups helped to launch community organisations and self help groups.
what increased the coverage of of black consciousness?
newspapers such as The World in Soweto while not directly promoting black consciousness, increased the coverage of its emerging politics. growing literacy among African youth provided an important vehicle for political ideas.
26 February 1976
The government decided that SASO was becoming too dangerous. banning orders were issued against the most prominent leader including Steve Biko, Barney Pityana, Mamphela Ramphele, Onkogopotse Tiro, Mapetla Mohapi, Tsietsi Mashinini. Tiro was dismissed from his teaching position.
why did the state briefly permitted a degree of tolerance for SASo in its earlier years?
the state briefly permitted a degree of tolerance for SASO in its earlier years because black conciseness initially seemed to have some potential for reinforcing apartheid. now it claimed down and arrested the remaining SASO leaders.
Subsequent trial 1975
on the charges under the Terorrism Act, the SASO 9, as the defendants were dubbed, managed to secure a high profile for their idea. they were not an illegal organisation, so the press was free to quite them. they sang freedom songs and raised clenched fists in the courtroom. Steve Biko, giving evidence for defence, outlined the philosophy of black consciousness.
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