Atypical gender development: gender dysphoria; biological and social explanations for gender dysphoria.

define cisgender

when someones gender identity matches the sex assigned at birth

define atypical in terms of gender

-people who don't follow the typical male-masculine/ female-feminine pattern

-they are stastically the minority

-gender diverse

what are 3 examples of gender diversity/ atypical gender development?

-transgender= gender identity doesnt match birth sex

-non-binary= gender identity isnt male or female but a mix of both

-gender fluid= the individual moves between gender identities

what is gender dysphoria?

-there is a mismatch between the sex assigned at birth based on anatomical sexual characteristics and psychological gender identi ty

-they experience psychological distress with this dysphoria

-for example saying they feel trapped in the wrong body

-it is a mental health condition in the DSM-5

^important to remember not all gender diverse people have it, it is only when there is distress

how does the biological explanation explain gender dysphoria?

-mismatch of gender and sex is due to biological factors like brain structure, genes and hormones

how is brain structure associated with gender dysphoria?

-'brain sex' theory suggests there are brain regions where the size can influence masculinisation and feminisation

-based on observations of brain areas like the hypothalamus in male to female transgender indivs. being closer to the size of females than males-

^raises possibility it results in a feminisation of whatever behaviour that area of the brain is responsible for

how are genetic factors associated with gender dysphoria?

-suggests gender dysphoria is inherited and variations in genes predispose people

-for example it suggests people with gender dysphoria have variations to genes that lead to changes in hypothalamus size, or the levels of testosterone produced being reduced, leading to feminisation

how are hormones associated with gender dysphoria?

-suggests surges of testosterone in males at 3 months in the womb and about 3 months after birth are essential for masculinisation- have to occur in sufficient amounts, and at the correct time

-if not carried out successfully (because of a disorder in mother's endocrine system, maternal stress or illness)= dysphoria

-similar process in females, but with more involvement for oestrogen

RESEARCH STRENGTH: which evidence supports genetic explanation?

Van Beijstervaldt (2006)

-collected childhood gender identity data from over 8000 twin pairs (DZ and MZ) as part of a longitudinal twin study in the Netherlands

-data revealed that 70% of variance in gender identity was due to genetic factors, suggesting atypical gender development in heritable

>MZ more likely to show both atypical or both typical

>DZ more likely one was atypical and other was typical

-also showed girls with female co-twins used more likely to show cross-gender behaviour than girls with male co-twins- counter to what would be expected by SLT

RESEARCH STRENGTH: which evidence supports the anatomical explanation?

Garcia-Falgueras 2008

-performed a post-mortem analysis of part of the anterior hypothalamus on 42 subjects

-found the volume and number of neurones in M to F transgenders is more similar to female controls than male controls

-suggests this area of the anterior hypothalamus is implicated in gender identity, and gender dysphoria is a result of sexual differentiation in the brain

RESEARCH STRENGTH: which evidence supports the hormonal explanation?

Theisen 2019

-sequenced the genomes of 13 transgender individuals and compared these to 88 controls

-found 21 gene variations associated with oestrogen reception in areas of the brain shown to become sexually dimorphic before birth

-suggests sex hormone exposure before birth results in sexually dimorphic brain development contributing to gender dysphoria

how does the socio-psychological theory explain gender development?

that mismatch of sex and gender is due to environmental-psychological factors such as peers, family, media and culture

how do behaviourists explain gender development?

-people's behaviours including sex-typed behaviour is shaped by operant conditioning and direct reinforcement/ punishment

-if someone is rewarded for cross-gendered behaviour, they will develop gender dysphoria

how do social learning theorists explain gender development?

-would agree, but add that gendered dysphoria can be learnt vicariously through the observation of non-gender conforming role models such as celebrities, as well as a lack of stereotypically male role models

how do cognitive psychologists/ schema theorists explain gender behaviour?

-that it is due to the development of schemas

-main idea= dual pathway theory

-children develop the typical sex-typed schemas (attitudinal) but those that go on to experience gender dysphoria develop a second set of non sex-typed schemas from personal experiences (personal pathway)

-if this second set overrides the first set, the child becomes androgynous or potentially gender dysphoric

RESEARCH STRENGTH: which evidence supports the fact that childhood gender dysphoria tends to be temporary?

Drummond 2008

-only 12% of 25 young girls still had gender dysphoria when followed up 10 years later

-suggests gender identity is not fixed, as would be suggested by biological arguments, but gender identity formation can be influenced by socio-psych. factors in childhood

RESEARCH STRENGTH: which evidence supports the interactional factor in gender dysphoria?

Zucker 1995

-interviewed the mothers of 115 male to female children, assessing levels of seperation anxiety

-found children that met the full criteria for gender identity disorder were significantly more likely to have experienced separation anxiety disorder

-suggests the development of an atypical gender identity is associated with the early interactional relationship between mothers and son

LIMITATION: why may caution be taken with using the socio-psychological explanation for atypical gender development?

-people with atypical gender development have strong beliefs about the origin of their condition often hoping for a biological determined explanation

-if evidence for a psychological origin is provided, it may cause psychological distress to this group

-may also be misunderstood by wider society as them having a 'choice', leading to social stigma and discrimination

STRENGTH: how have attempts to be socially sensitive in the scientific community been made?

-in the DSM-5, gender dysphoria is a replacement for the older term 'gender identity disorder' which implied anyone with a-typical gender identity was suffering with mental health conditions

-new term requires distress- changed has informed psychological research, and is designed to reduce stigma while providing support for distressed people

LIMITATION: why may biological explanations for gender dysphoria be too simplistic?

-bio. approach is too reductionist to be valid

-interactionist approach accepts that biological factors cause predisposition, and is then triggered by social factors